INTRODUCTION

Plant Biology / Botany

Bio 101

Mindanao State University

College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
Biology Department
Source of Knowledge

Science

Sacred Human
Knowledge GOD Knowledge

Earth and Life

Holy Books
ScienceMath Science

ISLAM
SCIENCE

1 PURE SCIENCE
PURE
SCIENCE
2 APPLIED SCIENCE
Life Physical Earth
3 Science Science
TECHNOLOGY Science
What is Science?

The goal of science is to understand natural

phenomena

2 types of science:
• Discovery science
• Hypothesis-based science

Four-eyed butterfly fish

Discovery Science
Describes nature
Uses inductive reasoning
Observations used to infer conclusions
(but no complete certainty as to validity)
e.g. This red jellybean tastes like cherry.
Thus, all red jellybeans taste like cherry.

= ?
 Hypothesis-Based Science

Uses deductive reasoning

Previously-known premises used to

form conclusions (as long as
premises are correct, conclusion
will be too)
e.g. Dogs are mammals.
All mammals have hair or fur.
Thus, all dogs have hair or fur.
Critical Thinking

Using data and facts to

make inferences, draw
conclusions, solve
problems, etc.
What is the
Scientific Method?

• Who uses it?

•Everyone uses it everyday.
•Even YOU!!!

• What is it?
It is a way to solve problems.
Do you have any problems to solve?
 The Scientific Method
Investigation of biological systems
Steps of scientific method:

1. Observation 2. Statement of the Problem

3. Hypothesize 4.Test/Experiment
5. Analysis of results 6. Conclusion
Scientific Method

Copyright Cmassengale 10
Observation
 Employing your five senses to
perceive objects or events

11
Copyright Cmassengale
Asking a Question
Statement of a Problem
• Based on observations; one or more
questions are generated

12
Copyright Cmassengale
Formulating Hypothesis
Hypothesis
-an initial scientific interpretation
Proposes the answer to a question about an
observation

e.g. Exposure to fertilizer increases

reproduction of bean plants
A Good Hypothesis …

Must be testable and falsifiable

A hypothesis can be falsified but can never be proven
true: evidence can only support

Scientific knowledge is ever expanding as new

methodologies are applied to old questions,
etc.
Examples of Good Hypotheses:
• Cactus spines reduce herbivory.
• UVB radiation causes limb deformities in
amphibians.

Examples of Untestable Hypotheses:

• Women are more moral than men.
• Dogs are smarter than cats.
 Experimenting
 Testing a hypothesis or prediction by
gathering data under controlled conditions –
conducting a controlled experiment
 Based on a comparison of a control
group with an experimental group

16

Copyright Cmassengale
 Both groups are identical except for one
factor (independent variable)
 Observations and measurements are
taken for a particular factor (dependent
variable) in both groups
 Driven by or results from independent
variable

17

Copyright Cmassengale
Testing a Hypothesis

Scientific experiment
(either falsifies or supports a hypothesis)

• Make predictions
• Determine variables
• Design an experimental procedure
• Carry out procedure
Making Predictions

Based on an experiment designed to test a

hypothesis

If/then statements:
“If the hypothesis is true, then the results of the
experiment will be …”
e.g. If exposure to fertilizer increases reproduction
of bean plants, then the number of pods per
plant should increase in plants exposed to
fertilizer compared with control plants.
 If results match prediction, hypothesis is
supported

If not, the hypothesis is falsified

Knowledge of process has been increased

either way, regardless of findings
Determining Variables

Factor, trait, or condition that can exist in

different amounts or types
Independent variable

The variable of interest

Is deliberately manipulated (changed)

Only one is usually chosen

(need to know which factor is affecting the
dependent variable)
Dependent variable

Is measured or observed during an

experiment

Value is caused by and depends on the

value of the independent variable
Control variable

Is kept constant
(so that will not affect outcome of
experiment)
 e.g. Exposure to fertilizer increases
reproduction of bean plants

Independent: fertilizer

Dependent: number of bean pods

Control: Other things that would affect bean

reproduction e.g. amount of water,
temperature, amount of light, etc.
Examples

The relationship between drug dosage &

frequency / intensity of symptoms
Independent: amount of drug administered (dosage)
Dependent: Frequency / intensity of symptoms

The relationship between plant growth rate &

duration of light exposure
Independent: Amount of time of exposure to light
Dependent: Plant growth rate
Designing a Procedure

Methodology for an experiment

Quantitative (counts/measurements) methods

usually better than qualitative (descriptive)
(allows re-testing of hypothesis by same or others)
Control Treatment

Independent variable either held at a

standard value or omitted

Results compared between control and

experimental treatments

Allows scientist to decide if predicted effect is

due to independent variable or random
chance
Examples

Researchers want to test the effects of a drug

for treating a medical condition. To ensure
that the drug actually works, they would use a
control group of people …
… who take a placebo drug

Researchers want to see the effects of drinking

caffeinated water. The control group…
… would drink plain water
Level of Treatment
Values set for independent variable
(based on prior knowledge/previous
research)

Can be:
• One specific value (e.g. specific temperature)
• Range of values (e.g. range of temperatures)

Some experiments have no level of treatment

• e.g. gender
Replication

Procedure is repeated several times to see if

results are consistent

Gives an idea of how much variation is

present

Results from different trials are averaged

Sample Size

Larger sample size = greater confidence

Sampling Error
Mean & standard deviations of sample differ
from that of population from which taken

Larger sample size = lower sampling error

Exposure to fertilizer increases reproduction of bean plants

Level of treatment:
– Specific amount of fertilizer OR
– Range of amounts/concentration of fertilizer

Control:
– Beans grown without applying fertilizer

Replication and sample size:

– Depends … the more the better
 Measuring
 Involves quantitative data that can
be measured in numbers &/or
qualitative data information that
isn’t numbers
 Sampling
 Technique of using a sample – a
small part – to represent the entire
population

Copyright Cmassengale 34
Analyzing and
Organizing Data
 Involves placing observations and
measurement (data) in order
 Graphs, charts, tables, or maps

35
Copyright Cmassengale
Analyzing Data
 Collected and organized data must be
analyzed
 Process of determining whether data are
reliable or whether they support or do
not support a hypothesis or prediction

36

Copyright Cmassengale
Presenting & Analyzing Results

Analysis:
Simple to advanced statistics 9
8
7
6
5
4

Presentation: 3
2
1

Tables and/or figures 0

1 2 3 4 5

• Show relationships between

independent and dependent 12

10

variables 8

Distance
6

• Bar graphs vs. line graphs 4

0
0 1 2 3 4
Time
 Conclusion
 Conclusions are made on the
basis of facts, not observations
 Often drawn from data
gathered from a study or
experiment
 Should support the
hypothesis
 Should be re-testable
38
Copyright Cmassengale
Drawing Conclusions
Results are interpreted:
Was hypothesis supported or falsified?

If supported:
Additional experiments suggested to further support
hypothesis
(using same or different methods)

If falsified:
Alternative hypotheses for testing suggested
Exposure to fertilizer increases reproduction of bean plants
If more pods found on plants treated with
fertilizer:

Hypothesis is supported

Could try different amounts/concentrations

of fertilizer, different fertilizers, etc.

Could also see if combination of variables

affects reproduction e.g. fertilizer & water,
fertilizer & light
Exposure to fertilizer increases reproduction of bean plants

If no significant difference in number of pods on

beans in either treatment (control or
experimental):

Hypothesis is falsified

Could try testing other factors e.g.

temperature, amount of water, amount of
light, etc.
 Communication
 Scientists must share the results of their
studies with other scientists (peers)
 Publish findings in journals
 Present their findings at scientific
meetings
 Scientists must be unbiased
 Should not tamper with their data
 Only publish & report tested & proven
ideas
42
Copyright Cmassengale
 Communication

 Sharing of information is essential to

scientific process
 Subject to examination and verification
by other scientists
 Allows scientists to build on the work of
others

Copyright Cmassengale 43
Scientific Method

Copyright Cmassengale 44
 Solving a Problem
1)Identify a Problem
2) State Observations
about the problem
3) Form a Hypothesis about
the problem (if…then…)
4) Design an Experiment to
test the hypothesis
5) Collect Data
6) Form a Conclusion
7) Retest
From Hypothesis to Theory
How does something become a scientific
theory?
When multiple rigorous tests have not
disproved a certain hypothesis
(i.e. an idea with “great explanatory power”)
• A theory can be used to interpret other data
and observations
Law-a relationship or regularity between
naturally occurring phenomena.
Theory-Explains why a phenomenon or a set of
phenomena occurs.
Limits of Science
Only testable hypotheses are valid

Some things are “unexplainable” or

“untestable”
Supernatural, morality, etc.
Basic Assumptions and Limitations of Science

• These assumptions and limitations form the basis for the

several Key Concepts of Science and the handy “Rules of
Science”.
Basic Assumptions of Science

1. The world is real. The physical universe exists apart from our sensory
experiences.
2. Humans can accurately perceive and understand the
physical universe.
3. Natural processes are sufficient for understanding the
natural world.
4. Nature operates uniformly throughout the universe in
space and time.
Basic Limitations of Scientific Knowledge
A. Our senses have their own biological limitations.

B. Our mental processing of sensory data is not always reliable.

C. It’s impossible to know if we have considered all possible

alternative explanations.

D. Scientific knowledge is necessarily contingent knowledge (and

therefore uncertain).

“Nature of Modern Science and Scientific Knowledge” by Martin Nickels, Professor of Anthropology.
http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/natscimn.html
Basic Limitations of Scientific Knowledge
NEVERTHELESS,
scientific knowledge is the most reliable knowledge we can have
about the natural world and how it works.

“Nature of Modern Science and Scientific Knowledge” by Martin Nickels, Professor of Anthropology.
http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/natscimn.html
Welcome to the Study of Life….

Biology
What Is Plant Biology?

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 The Effect Humans on the Environment

 Human population will exceed 7.8 billion in

2025– Is the size of the earth increasing?

 Major Human impacts on the Environment:

• Wetlands:
• Natural vegetation:
• Dumped:
• Used chemicals:
The Effect Humans Have on the Environment

 We must reduce our environmental impact:

• Agricultural practices
• Pollutants
• Recycle
• Replace pesticides:
• Conserve:
• Habitats and species:
Human and Animal Dependence on Plants
 FOOD ULTIMATELY FROM PLANTS:

 OXYGEN:
Human and Animal Dependence on Plants
 Plants Products used by human society:
•
•
•

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies Permission Required for Reproduction or

Display
Human and Animal Dependence on Plants
• Etc …
•
•
•

Coffee
Human and Animal Dependence on Plants
•

Cotton
plants
 Diversification of Plant Study
(Botanical Disciplines)
 Plant Anatomy & Morphology

 Plant Physiology

Cross-section of
 Plant Taxonomy Magnolia wood

• Describing, naming and classifying plants

 Plant Study– Botanical Disciplines
 Plant Geography
• Plant distributions

 Plant Ecology

 Genetics

 Cell Biology

 Economic Botany and

Ethnobotany: Practical uses
of plants and plant products
 What Is Botanical Discovery?
• Botanical Discovery is
“Plants In Print”
• This is where they put
pictures of plants in
books for learning
purposes.
Who Discovered This?
• Explorers such as,
Gaspard Bauhin,
Jacques Cartier, and
David Douglas
traveled from place to
place around the world
documenting different
types of plants. They
also took samples and
introduced them to
their homelands.