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By
negation not
conjunction and
disjunction or
implication implies
equivalence if and only if
Negation
Conjunction
• The conjunction p q is true only if p and q both are
true otherwise false
• The conjunction follows the commutative property,
i.e. p q = q p
Disjunction
• The disjunction p q is false if both p and q are false
otherwise true
• The disjunction follows the commutative property as
well, i.e. p q = q p
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
Implication
p q r (p q r) (p (q r))
t t t t t t t tt
t t f t f t f ft
t f t f t t t tt
t f f f t t t tt
f t t f t t t tt
f t f f t t t ft
f f t f t t t tt
f f f f t t t tt
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
De Morgan’s Laws
1. (p q) = p q
p q pq (p q) p q p q
t t t f f f f
t f f t f t t
f t f t t f t
f f f t t t t
2. (p q) = p q
p q pq (p q) p q p q
t t t f f f f
t f t f f t f
f t t f t f f
f f f t t t t
Counter Example
To prove x (A(x) B(x)) is false, we show some
object x for which A(x) is true and B(x) is false.
Proof
( x (A(x) B(x)))
x, (A(x) B(x)))
x, (A(x) B(x))
x, A(x) B(x))
Contraposition
To prove A B, we show ( B) ( A)
• x is divisible by 4 x is divisible by 2
x is not divisible by 2 x is not divisible by 4
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
Proof by Contradiction
Contradiction
To prove A B,
Steps in Proof
• We assume A and to prove that B
• On contrary suppose that B and
• Then prove B, it will be contradiction
Further analysis
• A B (A B) B Contradiction
• A B (A B) is false
• Assuming (A B) is true,
and discover a contradiction (such as A A),
then conclude (A B) is false, and so A B.
Prove:
[B (B C)] C, by contradiction
Proof:
Suppose [B (B C)], to prove C
On contrary, assume C
C [B (B C)] must be true
C [B ( B C)]
C [(B B) (B C)]
C [f (B C)]
C B C = C C B = f B = f
False, Contradiction C
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
Rules of Inference
Modus ponens
If {B (B C)} then {C}, example in last slide
Proof:
Suppose B (B C) then
B
BC
Syllogism
If {A B B C} then {A C}
Proof
• Suppose A B B C, To prove A C
• B
• C
Rule of cases
If {B C B C} then {C}
B, true, implies C true
B, true, implies C true
Dr Nazir A. Zafar Advanced Algorithms Analysis and Design
Two Valued Boolean Logic
4. Commutative:
• x+y=y+x
• x·y=y·x
5. Distributive:
• x · (y + z) = (x · y) + (x · z)
• x + (y · z) = (x + y) · (x + z)
6. Complement:
• x B, x’ B such that
x + x’ = 1, x · x’ = 0
Event
• Let S U. Then S is called an event, and
Pr( S ) Pr( si )
si S
Sure event
• U = {s1, s2, …, sk}, if S = U
Pr( S ) Pr( si ) 1
si S
Impossible event
• S = , Pr() = 0
n
n(n 1)
i 1
i
2
n
n( n 1)( 2n 1) 2n 3
3n 2
n
i 1
i
2
6
6
n
i (i n
1)
k 1
i i i ... i
k 2 n
i 1
k
n
2
k 1
i
2 1
n i 2 i
k 1 2 2
i 1 i 1
• Propositional Logic
• Predicate Logic
• We have discussed various techniques of proving
• Truth Tables
• Logical Equivalence
• Counter Example
• Contraposition
• Contradiction
• Rule of Inference
• Probability can be used for average cost analysis
• Series and summation are very helpful in simplification