ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

DC CIRCUITS
 Circuits
CIRCUITS
 A closed conducting path through which an electric
current flows or is intended to flow

Parameters
 The various elements of an electric circuit, like resistance, inductance,
and capacitance which may be lumped or distibuted.
 Types of Circuits

Linear Circuit
 Is one whose parameters are constant (i.e. They do not change with
voltage and current.
Non-Linear Circuit
 Is that circuit whose parameters change with voltage and current.
Bilateral Circuit
 Is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either
direction.
Unilateral Circuit
 Is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the
direction of its operation.
 Electrical Network
ELECTRICAL NETWORK
 Connection of various electric elements in any manner

Passive Network
 With no source of emf.
Active Network
 Contains one or more than one sources of emf.
 Parts of a Circuit

Node
 A junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements and/or
branches are connected together.
Branch
 Part of a network which lies between two junctions.
Loop
 A closed path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered
more than once.
Mesh
 A loop that contains no other loop within it.
Parts of a Circuit
 ELECTRICAL GROUND

 The common point in electric circuit.

Current - Physical Effect
 Electrical Element - RESISTORS
 Linear, passive two-terminal electrical component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element.
 Devices that oppose or limit electrical current.
 RESISTORS

 Resistors always dissipate some power as heat.

 But resistors can optimize the ability of a circuit to generate or amplify
a signal.
 Uses of Resistors
 Voltage division
 Biasing
 Current Limiting
 Power dissipation
 Bleeding off charge
 Impedance matching
 Voltage division
 Resistors used in this manner, ensures that an amplifier or oscillator
will do its job in the most efficient, reliable possible way.
 Biasing
 In order to work efficiently, transistors need the right bias.
 Current Limiting
 Resistors interfere with the flow of electrons in a circuit.
 Sometimes this is essential to prevent damage to a component or
circuit.
 Power Dissipation
 Dissipating power as heat is not always bad.
 Sometimes a resistor can be used as a “dummy” component, so that a
circuit “sees” the resistor as if it were something more complicated.
 Bleeding off charge
 Bleeder resistors, connected across the filter capacitors, drain their
stored charge so that servicing the supply is not dangerous.
Impedance Matching Resistor
 Bleeder resistors, connected across the filter capacitors, drain their
stored charge so that servicing the supply is not dangerous.
 Types of Resistors
 Fixed Resistor
Carbon composistion resistor
Wire wound resistor
Film type resistor
Integrated circuit resistor
 Variable resistor
Potentiometer
Rheostat
Trimmer
Carbon Composition Resistor
Wire wound resistor
Film type resistors
Chip type resistors
Potentiometer
Rheostat
Trimmer
 Resistance
 The ability of a resistor to oppose current depend on the value or
resistance of a resistor.
 Its unit is OHM. Named after
GEORG SIMON OHM
 Resistance
 Resistance depends on
 Length
 Cross sectional area
 Specific resistance (resisitivity)
 temperature
Resistance
Example 1:
 Example 2:
 Find the resistance of 100 ft of copper wire whose diameter is
0.024 in and whose resistivity is 10.3 Ὠ CM/ft.
Temperature effect on resistance
Example 3:
 OHM’S LAW
OHM’S LAW
 One of the most fundamental law in electrical circuits relating
voltage, current and resistance
 Developed in 1827 by German physicist Georg Simon Ohm
 OHM’S LAW
 According to Ohm’s Law, the current (I) flowing in an
electrical circuit is directly proportional to the applied
voltage (E) and inversely proportional to the equivalent
resistance (R) of the circuit and mathematically expressed
as:
 SERIES CIRCUITS
SERIES circuits
 A circuit connection in which the components are
connected to form one conducting path
 SERIES CIRCUITS

Voltage Division for Series Circuit:

E X = E T • RX
RT
Where: EX – voltage across the resistor concerned
ET – total voltage across the circuit
RX – the resistor concerned
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit

SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUITS
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS
PARALLEL circuits
 A circuit connection in which the components are
connected to form more than 1 conducting path
 PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Current Division for Parallel Circuit:

IX = IT • RT
RX
Where: IX – current concerned flowing through resistor Rx
IT – total current of the circuit
Req – equivalent resistance of the parallel circuit except Rx
RT – the sum of all resistances in the circuit
Color Coding
 Example 4:
 Calculate the resistance of the color coded resistor shown:
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
 Termed as “Laws of Electric Networks”
 Formulated by German physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

“In any electrical network, the algebraic sum of
the current meeting at a point (or junction) is
zero.”
 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW
 In short the sum of currents entering a node equals the sum
of currents leaving the node

IB + IC + ID = IA

(IB + IC + ID) - IA = 0
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
“The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in
each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network PLUS the algebraic sum of the emfs in the path is
zero.”
 Example 5:
 Determine the currents in the network using Kirchhoff’s laws.
 MESH ANALYSIS
MESH analysis
 A sophisticated application of KVL with mesh currents.
 Example 6:
 Determine the currents in the network using Mesh analysis.
 NODAL ANALYSIS
NODAL analysis
 A systematic application of KCL at a node and after simplifying
the resulting KCL equation, the node voltage can be calculated.

 Consist of finding the node voltages at all principal nodes

with respect to the reference node.

PRINCIPAL node – a node with three or more circuit elements

joined together.

Reference node – the node from which the unknown voltages

are measured.
 Example 7:
 Determine the currents in the network using Nodal analysis.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
SUPERPOSITION theorem
“ The current through or voltage across, an element in a linear
bilateral network is equal to the algebraic sum of the current or
voltages produced independently in each source. ”
 Example 8:
 Determine the currents in the network using Superposition
theorem.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM
THEVENIN’S theorem
“ Any two-terminal of a linear, active bilateral network of a
fixed resistances and voltage source/s may be replaced by a
single voltage source (VTH) and a series of internal resistance
(RTH). ”

where:
VTH – the open circuit voltage which
appears across the two terminals from
where the load resistance has been
removed.
RTH – the resistance looking back into the network across the two
terminals with all the voltage sources shorted and replaced by their
internal resistances (if any) and all current sources by infinite resistance.
 Example 9:
 Determine a current in the network using Thevenin’s
theorem.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
Norton’s theorem
“ Any two-terminal active network containing voltage sources
and resistances when viewed from its output terminals, is
equivalent to a constant-current source (IN) and a parallel
internal resistance (RN). ”

where:
IN – the current which would flow
in a short circuit placed across the
output terminals.
RN – the resistance of the network when viewed from the
open circuited terminals after all voltage sources being
replaced by open circuits.
 Example 10:
 Determine a current in the network using Norton’s theorem.
THEVENIN-NORTON
TRANSFORMATION
NORTON-THEVENIN
TRANSFORMATION
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
THEOREM
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER theorem
 For loads connected directly to a DC voltage supply, maximum
power will be delivered to the load when the resistance is equal
to the internal resistance of the source.
 For maximum power transfer: RS = RL
 Example 11:
 In the network shown in the figure, find the value of RL such
that maximum possible power will be transferred to RL. Find
also the value of the maximum power and the power supplied
by source under these conditions.
 Example 11:
 3.125 W and 6.250 W
 EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
DELTA to WYE
 The equivalent resistance of each arm to the wye is given by the
PRODUCT of the two delta sides that meet at its end divided by the
SUM of the three delta resistances.
 EQUIVALENT THREE-TERMINAL
NETWORKS
WYE to DELTA
 The equivalent delta resistance between any two twrminals is given by the
SUM of a star resistance between those terminals PLUS the PRODUCT of
these two star resistances DIVIDED by the third resistance.
 Example 12:
 Find the input resistance of the circuit between points A and B
of the given figure.
 Example 12:
 29/3 ohms
 Capacitors
 Is a passive electrical component that stores electrical charge and
has the property of capacitance.
 It is constructed of two parallel conductive plates separated by an
insulating material called the dielectric.
 Capacitors
 Charge Q stored in a capacitor is linearly proportional to, the
electric potential difference between the plates.
 Example 13:
 How many electrons accumulate on the negative plate of a 3uF
capacitor when it is connected across a 12V battery?
 Example 14:
 Determine the charge the passes through a resistor of 5A in 2 min

 600 C
Capacitance
 Variable capacitance
 The value is varied by either:
- changing the area of the plates
- changing the thickness of the dielectric
 Dielectrics
 If the two conducting plates of a capacitor are separated by an
insulating material, a dielectric, then it is found experimentally that
the capacitance is K times as great as it is when the same plates are
separated by vacuum.
 Dielectric Strength
 Indicates the ability of the dielectric to withstand the voltage
placed across it when the capacitor is charged.
 Governs the maximum working voltage of a capacitor
Dielectric
 Example 14:

 34.84nF
Capacitor in series
 Example 15:
 Find the voltage in each capacitor:

 6.55V, 3.27V, 2.18V

 Capacitor Types
 Fixed or variable
 Polarized or Non-polarized

 Paper Capacitors
 Mica Capacitors
 Ceramic Capacitors
 Plastic Film Capacitors
 Electrolytic Capacitors
 Trimmer Capacitor
 Paper Capacitor
 Used in early days of electronics
 0.001uF to 0.1uF
 Mica Capacitor
 Stacked-foil capacitor
 Low loss and highly efficient
 For radio receiver and transmitter
 Ceramic Capacitor
 Ceramic disk form
 Low loss and highly efficient
 Few pf to 0.5uF
 Plastic film Capacitor
 Uses polyethylene and polysterene
 0.001uF to 10uF
 Electrolytic capacitor
 Polarized
 1uF to 200,000uF
 For AF circuits and DC power supply
 Trimmer capacitor
 With screw-type adjustment adjustable capacitor
Capacitor Labeling
Capacitor in parallel
 Example 16:
 Find the charge in each capacitor:

 1.2uC, 2.4uC, 3.6uC

Series RC Transient Response
 Example 17:
 A series RC circuit with supply voltage of 40V have R=9k ohms and
C=0.02uF. Determine the capacitor voltage 40us after the switch is
closed if the capacitor is initially uncharged. How long will it take to
fully charge the capacitor?

 7.97V, 900us
Energy stored and Coulomb’s Law
 Directly proportional to the applied voltage and also to the charge
stored.
 Example 18:
 A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V battery. How much
electrostatic energy is stored in the capacitor.
 Inductors
 Reactor or coil
 A passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy
in a magnetic field.
 Choke
 Another name used for an inductor is a “choke”.
 AC is prevented from flowing or is “choked off” while DC is allowed
to pass.
 Self inductance
 Generated emf opposes the rate of change of current – Lenz law

Where:
V = induced voltage in V
L = inductance in H
i = current in A
t = time in seconds
 Self inductance
 Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause
a voltage to be induced – Faraday’s law
 Example 19:
 Apply Faraday’s law to find the induced voltage across a coil with
400 turns located in a magnetic field that is changing at a rate of 6
Wb/s.

 2.4 kV
Mutual inductance
 Example 20:
 If two coils are closed enough to have a mutual inductance of 0.2 H
and the coils have inductance of 2H and 8H, what is the coefficient
of coupling?

 0.05
 Energy stored
 Related directly to the current flowing through the coil.
 The greater the current, the greater is the stored energy
 Example 21:
 If a 10H coil has 50mA current flowing through it, how much
energy is stored in the magnetic field?

 0.0125 J
Physical
 Example 22:

 26.51 mH
Series and Parallel Inductors
 Example 23:
 Given the following inductance: 10mH, 15mH, and 20mH. Calculate
the total inductance if these inductors are connected in a) series; b)
parallel.

 a) 45mH; b) 4.62mH
Series Aiding and Opposing
Inductance
Parallel Aiding and Opposing
Inductance
 Example 24:
 Two inductors whose self-inductances are of 75mH and 55mH
respectively are connected together in parallel aiding. Their mutual
inductance is given as 22.5mH. Calculate the total inductance of the
parallel combination.

 42.6mH
Series RL Transient Response
 Example 25:
 A series RL circuit with R=2K ohms, L=15mH, and supply voltage of
15V. Calculate the inductor current 20us after the switch is closed.

 6.98mA
AC CIRCUITS
 ALTERNATING CURRENT
ALTERNATING CURRENT
 A current that is constantly changing in amplitude and
direction.
AC WAVEFORMS
AC VS DC
 AC WAVEFORMS
Parameters of Alternating Signal

f = 1 λ = v
T f

 Period (T) – the time of one complete cycle in seconds

 Frequency (f) – the number of cycles per second (Hertz)
a. 1 cycle/second (cps) = 1 Hertz (Hz)
b. Proper operation of electrical equipmnent requires specific frequency
c. Frequencies lower than 60 Hz would cause flicker when used in lightning
 Wavelength (λ) – the length of one complete cycle
 Propagation Velocity (v) – the speed of the signal
 Phase (Φ) – an angular measurement that specifies the position of a sine wave
relative to reference
 AC WAVEFORMS
THE SINUSOIDAL WAVE
 Is the most common AC waveform that is practically
generated by generators used in household and
industries

a(t) = Am sin (ωt + Φ)

Where:
a(t) – instantaneous amplitude of voltage or current at a given time (t)
Am – maximum voltage or current amplitude of the signal
ω – angular velocity in rad/sec; ω = 2πf
t – time (sec)
Φ – phase shift ( + or – in degrees)
 AC WAVEFORMS
Measurements of AC Magnitude
AMPLITUDE
 It is the height of an AC waveform as depicted on a graph over time
(peak, peak-to-peak, average, or RMS quantity)

 PEAK AMPLITUDE – the height of an AC waveform as measured from the

zero mark to the highest positive or lowest negative point on a graph. Also
known as the crest amplitude of a wave.
 AC WAVEFORMS

 PEAK-TO-PEAK AMPLITUDE – the total height of an AC waveform as

measured from maximum positive to maximum negative peaks on a
graph. Often abbreviated as “P-P”
 AC WAVEFORMS
 AVERAGE AMPLITUDE – the mathematical “mean” of all a waveform’s points
over the period of one cycle. Technically, the average amplitude of any
waveform with equal-area portions above and below the “zero” line on a
graph is zero.

 For a sine wave, the average value so calculated is approximately 0.637 of its
peak value.
 AC WAVEFORMS
 RMS AMPLITUDE - “RMS” stands for Root Mean Square, and is a way of
expressing an AC quantity of voltage or current in terms functionally
equivalent to DC. Also known as the “equivalent” or “DC equivalent”
value of an AC voltage or current.

 For a sine wave, the RMS value is approximately 0.707 of its peak value.
AC WAVEFORMS

 The crest factor of an AC

waveform is the ratio of
its peak (crest) to its RMS
value.

 The form factor of an AC

waveform is the ratio of
its RMS value to its
average value.
 Example 26:
What is the average voltage of AC?
A. 0.5 Vm
B. 0.636 Vm
C. 0 Vm
D. 0.707 Vm
 AC QUANTITIES

RESISTANCE (R)
 Opposes the AC current similar to DC circuits
 Opposition offered by resistors

REACTANCE (X)
 Depends on the AC frequency of the AC source which
is the opposition to current due to inductance and
capacitance
 AC QUANTITIES
Inductive Reactance (XL)
• The property of the inductor to oppose the alternating current
XL = 2πfL
Inductive Susceptance (BL)
• Reciprocal of inductive reactance
BL = 1 BL = 1
XL 2πfL
Capacitive Reactance (XC)
• The property of a capacitor to oppose alternating current
XC = 1
2πfC
Capacitive Susceptance (BC)
• Reciprocal of capacitive reactance
BC = 1 BC = 2πfC
.
XC
 AC QUANTITIES
IMPEDANCE (Z)
 Total opposition to the flow of Alternating current
 Combination of the resistance in a circuit and the reactances
involved

Z = R + jXeq Z = |Z| ∠φ

Where: |Z| = √ R2 + X2
φ = Arctan Xeq
R

Phasor Diagram of Impedance

 AC QUANTITIES
ADMITTANCE (Y)
 The reciprocal of impedance
 Expressed in siemens or mho (S)

Y = √ G2 + B2 ∠ tan-1 B
G
Example 27:
Example 27:
Purely Resistive Circuit

Impedance (Z) = R
 Purely Inductive Circuit

Impedance (Z) = jXL

 Purely Capacitive Circuit

Impedance (Z) = -jXC

 Example 28:

a) 1.06A, 11.25W
b) 3.38A, 0W
c) 333.05mA, 0W
 SERIES RL CIRCUIT
 For a series resistor-inductor circuit, the voltage and current relation is
determined in its phase shift. Thus, current lags voltage by a phase shift
(θ)

Impedance (Z) = R + jXL

Admittance (Y) = 1 = R – jXL
R + jXL R2 + jXL2
SERIES RL CIRCUIT
 SERIES RC CIRCUIT
 For a series resistor – capacitor circuit, the voltage and current relation is
determined by the phase shift. Thus the current leads the voltage by an
angle less than 90 degrees but greater than 0 degrees.

Impedance (Z) = R – jXC

Admittance (Y) = 1 = R + jXC
R – jXC R2 + jXC2
SERIES RC CIRCUIT
Example 29:
 Series RLC and Series Resonance
APPARENT POWER
 Represents the rate at which the total energy is supplied
to the system
 Measured in volt-amperes (VA)
 It has two components, the Real Power and the
Capacitive or Inductive Reactive Power
 APPARENT POWER (S)
APPARENT POWER
 Represents the rate at which the total energy is supplied to the
system
 Measured in volt-amperes (VA)
 It has two components, the Real Power and the Capacitive or
Inductive Reactive Power

S = Vrms Irms = Irms2 |Z|

 APPARENT POWER (S)
Power Triangle

Complex Power

S = P ± jQ
 REAL POWER (R)
REAL POWER
 The power consumed by the resistive component
 Also called True Power, Useful Power and Productive Power
 Measured in Watts (W)
 It is equal to the product of the apparent power and the power factor

P = Scos θ
Power Factor
 Cosine of the power factor angle (θ)
 Measure of the power that is dissipated by the cicuit in relation to the
apparent power and is usually given as a decimal or percentage

Pf = cos θ
 REACTIVE POWER (QL or QC)
REACTIVE POWER
 Also called the imaginary power, non-productive or
wattless power
 Measured in volt-ampere reactive (Var)
 It is positive for inductive power (QL) and negative for
capacitive power (QC)

Reactive factor
 Ratio of the Reactive Power to the Apparent Power
 Sine of the power factor angle (θ)
Rf = sin θ
 Example 30:
A series circuit is composed of a resistance of 200 ohms, inductive reactance of
800 ohms, and capacitive reactance of 500 ohms is connected to an AC
residential source. Determine the ff.:
a) Total impedance
b) Total current
c) Phase angle of the circuit
d) Voltage across the resistor
e) Voltage across the inductor
f) Voltage across the capacitor
g) Apparent Power
h) Real Power
i) Reactive Power
j) Power factor
k) Reactive factor
Example 30:
 PARALLEL RL

Y = G – jβL where: G – conductance = 1/R

βL – susceptance = 1/XL
Z = E , by Ohm’s Law
I

 The basic approachwith regards to parallel circuits is using admittance

because it is additive
 PARALLEL RC

Y = G + jβC where: G – conductance = 1/R

βC – susceptance = 1/XC

o When resistors and capacitors are mixxed together in circuits, the total
impedance will have a phase angle somewhere between 0o and -90o.
Parallel RLC and Parallel Resonance
 Example 31:
A parallel resonance network consisting of a resistor of 60Ω, a capacitor of 120uF
and an inductor of 200mH is connected across a sinusoidal supply voltage which
has a constant output of 100 volts at all frequencies. Calculate:
a) resonant frequency
b) Inductive reactance at resonance
c) quality factor
d) bandwidth of the circuit
e) The upper and lower -3dB frequency points
f) the circuit current at resonance

a) 32.49Hz
b) 40.82 ohms
c) 1.47
d) 22.11Hz
e) 21.44Hz and 43.55Hz
f) 1.67A
Thanks!