Hydrology

Topics to be covered

 Weather

 Introduction to Hydrology

 Different stages of Hydrology or water cycle

 Hydrologic losses and measurements

 Analytical Methods

Empirical Methods
Weather and hydrologic cycle
 Weather & Climate

 Weather- “the state of the atmosphere with respect to heat or cold, wetness
or dryness, calm or storm, clearness or cloudiness”.

 Climate – “the average course or condition of the weather at a place usually

over a period of years as exhibited by temperature, wind velocity, and
precipitation”.

Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation

activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric
conditions over longer periods of time.

(Wikipedia)
 Atmosphere

 Troposphere
 Most of the weather occurs.
 Stratosphere
 19% of the atmosphere’s gases;
 Ozone layer
 Mesosphere
 Most meteorites burn up here.
 Thermosphere
High energy rays from the sun are
absorbed;
 Hottest layer.
 Exosphere
 Molecules from atmosphere
escape into space; satellites orbit here.
 Winds and Wind belts

 Exist to circulate heat and

moisture from areas of
heating to areas of cooling

Equator to poles
Low altitudes to
high altitudes

 Three bands of low and high

pressure above and below
the equator (area of low
pressure)
 Cloud Types

Cloud is a visible set of drops of water and fragments of ice suspended in

the atmosphere and located at some altitude above the earth’s surface.
 Classification of Precipitation events

 Based on the “mechanism” by which air is lifted.

 Frontal lifting:
Warmer air is forced to go above cooler air in equilibrium with a cooler surface.
 Orographic lifting:
Air is forced to go over mountains (and it’s the reason why windward slopes
receive more precipitation).

 Convective Lifting:
Warm air rises from a warm surface and progressively cools down.
 Cyclonic Lifting:
A cyclonic storm is a large, low pressure system that forms when a warm air
mass and a cold air mass collide.
Frontal lifting
Orographic lifting
Convectional lifting

(climateofindia.pbworks.com)
Cyclonic lifting
 Factors affecting Indian climate

Factors affecting Indian climate

Related to Location and Relief Related to Air Pressure and Wind

•Latitude •Surface pressure & wind

•Altitude •Upper air circulation

•Relief •Western cyclones

•Distance from Sea

•The Himalayan Mountains
•Distribution of Land & water
 Seasons

 Cold weather
 Hot weather
 South west monsoon
 Retreating monsoon
Seasons

Cold Weather Season

► It extends from December to
February.

► Vertical sun rays shift towards

southern hemisphere.

► North India experiences

intense cold

► Light wind blow makes this

season pleasant in south
India.

► Occasional tropical cyclone

visit eastern coast in this
Tropical Cyclone
season.
Seasons

Temperature-January

100C`
150C

200C

200C
250C 200C

200C
250C

(climateofindia.pbworks.com)
Seasons

Pressure-January

HIGH
PRESSURE

1014

(climateofindia.pbworks.com)
Seasons

Winter Rainfall

RAINFALL DUE
TO WESTERN
DISTURBANCES

RAINFALL DUE
TO NORTH EAST
WIND
Seasons

Hot Weather Season

► It extends from March to

May.

► Vertical sun rays shift

towards Northern
hemisphere.
May 480C
► Temperature rises gradually
from south to north.
April 380C
► Highest Temperature
experiences in Karnataka
in March, Madhya Pradesh
in April and Rajastan in March 300C
May.
Seasons

Temperature-July

250C

300C
Seasons

Pressure-July
Seasons

Storms in Hot Weather Season

BARDOLI
CHHEERHA

LOO

KALBAISAKHI

MANGO
SHOWER

BLOSSOM
SHOWER
(climateofindia.pbworks.com)
Seasons

South West Monsoon

► It extends from June to

September.

► Intense heating in north

west India creates low
pressure region.
LOW PRESSURE
► Low pressure attract the HIGH TEMPERATURE

wind from the

surrounding region.

► After having rains for a few

days sometime monsoon
fails to occur for one or
more weeks is known as
break in the monsoon.
Seasons

Monsoon Wind

Arabian Bay of
sea Branch Bengal
Branch
INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE
Seasons

Retreating Monsoon Season

► It extends from October to

November

► Vertical sun rays start shifting

towards Northern
hemisphere.
LOW PRESSURE

► Low pressure region shift

from northern parts of India
towards south.

► Owing to the conditions of

high temperature and
humidity, the weather
becomes rather oppressive.
This is commonly known as
the ‘October heat’
Seasons

Withdrawal of Monsoon
Seasons

Variability of Rainfall

► The variability of rainfall is computed

with the help of the following formula:
C.V.= Standard Deviation/ Mean * 100

► Variability  <25% exist in Western

coasts, Western Ghats, north-eastern
peninsula, eastern plain of the
Ganga, northern-India, Uttaranchal, SW
J & K & HP.

► Variability  >50% found in Western

Rajastan, J & K and interior parts of
Deccan.

► Region with high rainfall has less

variability.
Weather and hydrologic cycle (contd.)
 Hydrology

Hydor + logos (Both are Greek words)

“Hydor” means water and “logos” means study.

Hydrology is a science which deals with the occurrence, circulation and

distribution of water of the earth and earth’s atmosphere.

Hydrological Cycle: It is also known as water cycle. The hydrologic cycle is a

continuous process in which water is evaporated from water surfaces and the
oceans, moves inland as moist air masses, and produces precipitation, if the
correct vertical lifting conditions exist.
Hydrologic Cycle

(climateofindia.pbworks.com)
 Stages of the Hydrologic cycle

 Precipitation

 Infiltration

 Interception

Depression storage

 Run-off

 Evaporation

 Transpiration

 Groundwater
Precipitation

Forms of precipitation
 Rain
Water drops that have a diameter of at least 0.5 mm. It can be classified based on
intensity as,
Light rain  up to 2.5 mm/h
Moderate rain 2.5 mm/h to 7.5 mm/h
Heavy rain  > 7.5 mm/h

 Snow
Precipitation in the form of ice crystals which usually combine to form flakes, with
an average density of 0.1 g/cm3.

 Drizzle
Rain-droplets of size less than 0.5 mm and rain intensity of less than 1mm/h is
known as drizzle.
Precipitation

Forms of precipitation Contd…

 Glaze
When rain or drizzle touches ground at 0oC, glaze or freezing rain is
formed.

 Sleet
It is frozen raindrops of transparent grains which form when rain falls
through air at subfreezing temperature.

 Hail
It is a showery precipitation in the form of irregular pellets or lumps of ice of
size more than 8 mm.
Precipitation

Rainfall measurement

The instrument used to collect and measure the precipitation is called raingauge.

Types of raingauges:

1) Non-recording : Symon’s gauge

2) Recording
 Tipping-bucket type
 Weighing-bucket type
 Natural-syphon type

Symon’s gauge
Precipitation

Recording raingauges
The instrument records the graphical variation of the rainfall, the total collected
quantity in a certain time interval and the intensity of the rainfall (mm/hour).

 It allows continuous measurement of the rainfall.

1. Tipping-bucket type
These buckets are so balanced that when
0.25mm of rain falls into one bucket, it tips
bringing the other bucket in position.

Tipping-bucket type raingauge

Precipitation

2. Weighing-bucket type
The catch empties into a bucket mounted
on a weighing scale.

The weight of the bucket and its contents

are recorded on a clock work driven chart.

The instrument gives a plot of cumulative

rainfall against time (mass curve of
rainfall).

Weighing-bucket type raingauge

Precipitation

3. Natural Syphon Type (Float Type)

The rainfall collected in the funnel
shaped collector is led into a float
chamber, causing the float to rise.

As the float rises, a pen attached to

the float through a lever system
records the rainfall on a rotating drum
driven by a clockwork mechanism.

A syphon arrangement empties the Float-type raingauge

float chamber when the float has

reached a preset maximum level.
Precipitation

Presentation of rainfall data

 Hyetograph

Plot of rainfall intensity against

time, where rainfall intensity is depth of
rainfall per unit time

 Mass curve of rainfall

Plot of accumulated precipitation
against time, plotted in chronological
Rainfall Mass Curve
order.

 Point rainfall
It is also known as station rainfall . It
refers to the rainfall data of a station
Precipitation

Mean precipitation over an area

The following methods are used to measure the average precipitation

over an area:

1. Arithmetic Mean Method

2. Thiessen polygon method
3. Isohyetal method
4. Inverse distance weighting
1. Arithmetic Mean Method
Simplest method for determining areal average P1

N
1
P
N
P i
P2
i1 P3
where, Pi : rainfall at the ith raingauge station
N : total no: of raingauge stations
Precipitation

Mean precipitation over an area Contd…

2. Thiessen polygon method

This method assumes that any point in the watershed receives the same
amount of rainfall as that measured at the nearest raingauge station.
Here, rainfall recorded at a gage can be applied to any point at a distance
halfway to the next station in any direction.

Steps:
a) Draw lines joining adjacent gages
b) Draw perpendicular bisectors to the lines created in step a)
c) Extend the lines created in step b) in both directions to form representative
areas for gages

d) Compute representative area for each gage

e) Compute the areal average using the following:
P
1 N P1 = 10 mm, A1 = 12 Km2 1
P   Ai Pi
A i1 P2 = 20 mm, A2 = 15 Km2 P 1

2
P3 = 30 mm, A3 = 20 km2
2 P
1210 15 20  20 30 3
P  20.7 mm
47 3

10
3. Isohyetal method
1 N 20
P   Ai Pi P1
A i1 A1=5 , p1 = 5

where, Ai : Area between each pair of adjacent isohyets A2=20 , p2 = 15

Pi : Average precipitation for each pair of P2

adjacent isohyets
A3=15 , p3 = 25

       P3
P  5 5 20 15 15 25 10 35  21.mm 30 A4=10 , p3 = 35
50
4. Inverse distance weighting (IDW) method
Prediction at a point is more influenced by nearby measurements than that
by distant measurements. The prediction at an ungauged point is inversely
proportional to the distance to the measurement points.

Steps:
a) Compute distance (di) from ungauged point P1=10
to all measurement points.
d12  x1  x2 2  y1  y 2 2 P2= 20 d1=25
b) Compute the precipitation at the ungauged
d2=15 P3=30
point using the following formula:
N  Pi d3=10
  2
i1  d i 
10
2 
20 30
2
102  25.24 mm
p
ˆ ˆ 25 15
P P
1 1 1
N 
1  
 2  252 152 102
i1  d i 
N = No: of gauged points
Precipitation

Adjustments of precipitation data

 Check for continuity and consistency of rainfall records

 Normal rainfall as standard of comparison

 Normal rainfall: Average value of rainfall at a particular date, month or year

over a specified 30-year period.

Check for Continuity: (Estimation of missing data)

P1, P2, P3,…, Pm  annual precipitation at neighboring M stations 1, 2, 3,…,M
respectively

Px  Missing annual precipitation at station X

N1, N2, N3,…, Nm & Nx normal annual precipitation at all M stations and at X
respectively
Precipitation

Adjustments of precipitation data Contd…

Check for continuity

1. Arithmetic Average Method:

This method is used when normal annual precipitations at various
stations show variation within 10% w.r.t station X

2. Normal Ratio Method

Used when normal annual precipitations at various stations show

variation >10% w.r.t station X

Precipitation

Adjustments of precipitation data Contd…

Test for consistency of record

Causes of inconsistency in records:

 Shifting of raingauge to a new location

 Change in the ecosystem due to calamities

 Occurrence of observational error from a certain date

 Relevant when change in trend is >5years

Precipitation

Adjustments of precipitation data Contd…

Test for consistency of record

82

Accumulated Precipitation of
83
Double Mass Curve Technique 84

When each recorded data comes 85

from the same parent population, they 86

Station X, ΣPx
are consistent. 87

88

 Break in the year : 1987 89

90
 Correction Ratio : Mc/Ma = c/a
Average accumulated precipitation of
 Pcx = Px*Mc/Ma neighbouring stations ΣPav

Pcx – corrected precipitation at any time period t1 at station X

Px – Original recorded precipitation at time period t1 at station X
Mc – corrected slope of the double mass curve
Ma – original slope of the mass curve
Precipitation

Depth-Area-Duration relationships

It indicates the areal distribution characteristic of a storm of given duration.

Depth-Area relationship
For a rainfall of given duration, the average depth decreases with the area in
an exponential fashion given by:

P  P0 exp(KA n )

where P : average depth in cms over an area Akm2,

Po : highest amount of rainfall in cm at the storm centre
K, n : constants for a given region
Precipitation

Depth-Area-Duration relationships Contd…

The development of maximum depth-area-duration relationship is known

as DAD analysis.

 It is an important aspect of hydro-meteorological study.

(Subramanya, 1994)
Typical DAD curves
Precipitation

Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves

 It is necessary to know the rainfall intensities of different durations and different
return periods, in case of many design problems such as runoff disposal,
erosion control, highway construction,culvert design etc.

 The curve that shows the inter-dependency between i (cm/hr), D (hour) and T
(year) is called IDF curve.

 The relation can be expressed in general form as:

i – Intensity (cm/hr)
kTx
i  D – Duration (hours)
D  an
K, x, a, n – are constant for a given
catchment
Precipitation

Intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curves Contd…

Typical IDF Curve

14 T = 25 years
12 T = 50 years
Intensity, cm/hr

10 T = 100years

8
k = 6.93
6 x = 0.189
4 a = 0.5
2 n = 0.878
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Duration, hr
Precipitation

Exercise Problem
• The annual normal rainfall at stations A,B,C and D in a basin are 80.97,
67.59, 76.28 and 92.01cm respectively. In the year 1975, the station D was
inoperative and the stations A,B and C recorded annual precipitations of
91.11, 72.23 and 79.89cm respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in
that year.
Hydrologic losses
 Hydrologic losses

In engineering hydrology, runoff is the main area of interest. So, evaporation
and transpiration phases are treated as “losses”.

If precipitation not available for surface runoff is considered as “loss”, then the
following processes are also “losses”:

 Interception
 Depression storage
 Infiltration

 In terms of groundwater, infiltration process is a “gain”.

 Interception

Interception is the part of the rainfall that is intercepted by the earth’ssurface

and which subsequently evaporates.

The interception can take place by vegetal cover or depression storage in

puddles and in land formations such as rills and furrows.

Interception can amount up to 15-50% of precipitation, which is a significant part

of the water balance.
 Depression storage

Depression storage is the natural depressions within a catchment area which

store runoff. Generally, after the depression storage is filled, runoff starts.

 A paved surface will not detain as much water as a recently furrowed field.

The relative importance of depression storage in determining the runoff from a

given storm depends on the amount and intensity of precipitation in the storm.
 Infiltration

The process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil. The rate of
infiltration is affected by soil characteristics including ease of entry, storage
capacity, and transmission rate through the soil.

The soil texture and structure, vegetation types and cover, water content of the
soli, soil temperature, and rainfall intensity all play a role in controlling
infiltration rate and capacity.
 Infiltration

Factors affecting infiltration

Infiltration capacity or amount of infiltration

depends on :

 Soil type

 Surface of entry

 Fluid characteristics.

http://techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module01/images/Infiltration.jpg
Infiltration

Factors affecting infiltration Contd…

Soil Type : Sand with high porosity will have greater infiltration than clay soil with
low porosity.

Surface of Entry : If soil pores are already filled with water, capacity of the soil to
infiltrate will greatly reduce. Also, if the surface is covered by leaves or impervious
materials like plastic, cement then seepage of water will be blocked.

Fluid Characteristics : Water with high turbidity or suspended solids will face
resistance during infiltration as the pores of the soil may be blocked by the
dissolved solids. Increase in temperature can influence viscosity of water which will
again impact on the movement of water through the surface.
Infiltration

Infiltration rate

Infiltration capacity :
The maximum rate at which, soil at a given time can absorb water.
f = fc when i ≥ fc
f = when i < fc
where fc = infiltration capacity (cm/hr)
i = intensity of rainfall (cm/hr)

f = rate of infiltration (cm/hr)

Infiltration

Infiltration rate Contd…

Horton’s Formula: This equation assumes an infinite water supply at the surface
i.e., it assumes saturation conditions at the soil surface.

For measuring the infiltration capacity the following expression are used:
f(t) = fc + (f0 – fc) e–kt for
where k = decay constant ~ T-1
fc = final equilibrium infiltration capacity
f0 = initial infiltration capacity when t = 0
f(t) = infiltration capacity at any time t from start of the rainfall
td = duration of rainfall
Infiltration

Infiltration rate Contd…

f0

ft=fc+(f0-fc)e -kt
f fc
infiltration

time t
Graphical representation of Horton formula

Measurement of infiltration
1. Flooding type infiltrometer
2. Rainfall simulator
Infiltration

Measurement of infiltration

Infiltration indices
The average value of infiltration is called
infiltration index.

Two types of infiltration indices

  - index

 w –index
Infiltration

Measurement of infiltration Contd...

Infiltration indices

 The indices are mathematically expressed as:

-index=(P-R)/te
w-index=(P-R-Ia)/te

where P=total storm precipitation (cm)

R=total surface runoff (cm)

Ia=Initial losses (cm)

te= elapsed time period (in hours)

The w-index is more accurate than the -index because it subtracts initial losses
Infiltration

Example Problem

A 12-hour storm rainfall with the following depths in cm occurred over a basin:
2.0, 2.5, 7.6, 3.8, 10.6, 5.0, 7.0, 10.0, 6.4, 3.8, 1.4 and 1.4. The surface runoff

resulting from the above storm is equivalent to 25.5 cm of depth over the basin.
Determine the average infiltration index (Φ-index) for the basin.

Total rainfall in 12 hours = 61.5 cm

Total runoff in 12 hours = 25.5 cm
Total infiltration in 12 hours = 36 cm
Average infiltration = 3.0 cm/hr
Average rate of infiltration during the central 8 hours
8 Φ +2.0+2.5+1.4+1.4 = 36

Φ = 3.6cm/hr
 Evaporation

In this process, water changes from its liquid state to gaseous state.
Water is transferred from the surface to the atmosphere
through evaporation

Evaporation is directly proportional to :

 Vapor pressure (ew),

 Atmospheric temperature (T),

 Wind speed (W) and

 Heat storage in the water body (A)

Evaporation

Factors affecting evaporation

Vapour pressure: The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference

between the saturation vapour pressure at the water temperature, ew and the
actual vapour pressure in the air ea.

EL = C (ew - ea)
EL = rate of evaporation (mm/day); C = a constant ; ew and ea are in mm of
mercury;

The above equation is known as Dalton’s law of evaporation. Evaporation takes

place till ew > ea, condensation happen if ew < ea
Evaporation

Factors affecting evaporation Contd…

Temperature: The rate of evaporation increase if the water temperature is

increased. The rate of evaporation also increase with the air temperature.

Heat Storage in water body: Deep bodies can store more heat energy than
shallow water bodies. Which causes more evaporation in winter than summer
for deep lakes.
Evaporation

Types of Evaporation

Soil evaporation: Evaporation from water stored in the pores of the soil i.e., soil
moisture.

 Canopy evaporation: Evaporation from tree canopy.

 Total evaporation from a catchment or an area is the summation of both soil

and canopy evaporation.
Evaporation

Measurement of evaporation

The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is estimated by the

following methods:

1. Using evaporimeter data

2. Empirical equations
3. Analytical methods

1. Evaporimeters : Water containing pans which are exposed to the atmosphere

and loss of water by evaporation measured in them in the regular intervals.

a) Class A Evaporation Pan

b) ISI Standard pan
c) Colorado sunken pan
d) USGS Floating pan
Evaporation

Measurement of evaporation Contd…

1. Evaporimeters

Demerits of Evaporation pan:

1. Pan differs in the heat-storing capacity and heat transfer from the sides
and bottom.
Result: reduces the efficiency (sunken pan and floating pan eliminates this
problem)
2. The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind action over the
surface.
3. The heat-transfer characteristics of the pan material is different from that of
the reservoir.
Evaporation

Measurement of evaporation Contd…

Pan Coefficient (Cp)

For accurate measurements from evaporation pan a coefficient is introduce, known
as pan coefficient (Cp). Lake evaporation = Cp x pan evaporation

Type of pan Range of Cp Average value Cp

Class A land pan 0.60-0.80 0.70

ISI pan 0.65-1.10 0.80

Colorado sunken pan 0.75-0.86 0.78

USGS Floating pan 0.70-0.82 0.80

Source: Subramanya, 1994

Evaporation

Measurement of evaporation Contd…

2. Empirical equation

Mayer’s Formula (1915)

EL = Km (ew- ea) (1+ (u9/16))

where EL = Lake evaporation in mm/day;

ew = saturated vapour pressure at the water surface temperature;
ea = actual vapour pressure of over lying air at a specified height;
u9 = monthly mean wind velocity in km/hr at about 9 m above the
ground;
Km= coefficient, 0.36 for large deep waters and 0.50 for small
shallow waters.
Evaporation

Example Problem

A reservoir with a surface area of 250 ha had the following parameters: water temp.
22.5oC, RH = 40%, wind velocity at 9.0 m above the ground = 20 km/hr. Estimate
the volume of the water evaporated from the lake in a week.

Given ew = 20.44, Km =0.36.

Solution:
ea = 0.40 x 20.44 = 8.176 mm Hg; U9 = 20 km/hr;
Substitute the values in Mayer’s Equation .

Now, EL = 9.93 mm/day

For a week it will be 173775 m3.
Evaporation

Measurement of evaporation Contd…

3. Analytical method
Water Budget method: This is the simplest analytical method.

P + Vis + Vig = Vos + EL + ds + TL

P= daily precipitation;
Vis = daily surface inflow into the lake;
Vig = daily groundwater flow ;
Vos= daily surface outflow from the lake;
Vog= daily seepage outflow;

EL= daily lake evaporation;

ds= increase the lake storage in a day;
TL= daily transportation loss
 Evapotranspiration

Transpiration + Evaporation

This phenomenon describes transport of water into the atmosphere from

surfaces, including soil (soil evaporation), and vegetation (transpiration).

Hydrologic Budget equation for Evapotranspiration:

P – Rs – Go - Eact = del S
P= precipitation; Rs= Surface runoff; Go= Subsurface outflow; Eact = Actual
evapotranspiration; del S = change in the moisture storage.
 Hydrology is a science which deals with the movement, distribution, and quality
of water on Earth including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and
environmental watershed sustainability.

 Stages of the Hydrologic cycle or Water cycle

 Precipitation
 Infiltration
 Interception
 Run-off
 Evaporation
 Transpiration
 Groundwater
Highlights in the Module Contd…

 Hydrologic Losses : evaporation, transpiration and interception

 Measurement of Precipitation

 Non-Recording Rain gauges: Symons’s gauge

 Recording Rain gauges: tipping bucket type, weighing bucket type and natural
syphon type

 Presentation of Rainfall Data: Mass curve, Hyetograph, Point Rainfall and DAD
curves

 Factors affecting Infiltration: soil characteristics, surface of entry and fluid

characteristics

 Determination of Infiltration rate can be performed using flooding type

infiltrometers and rainfall simulator.
Highlights in the Module Contd…

 Factors affecting evaporation : vapour pressure, wind

speed, temperature, atmospheric pressure, presence of soluble salts and heat
storage capacity of lake/reservoir

 Measurement of evaporation: evaporimeters, empirical equations and

analytical methods

 Weather refers, generally, to day-to-day temperature and precipitation

activity, whereas climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions
over longer periods of time.

 Formation of Precipitation: frontal, convective, cyclonic and orographic

 The four different seasons are: Cold weather, Hot weather, South-West
monsoon and Retreating monsoon