Unit 14

Underground
Mining Methods
In this unit, you will learn the various underground
mining methods and the conditions required for their
use.
After completing this unit, you should be able to:

• Understand the major underground mining methods

 Stope Naturally Supported
 Stopes Artificially Supported
 Caved Stopes
 Solution
 Combination of Methods
• Explain the reasons for mining method selection
• Understands how geology influences selection of a mining method

• Lists the engineering factors which influence selection of a mining

method
• Understands the significance of dilution
• Understands costing of mining methods
In mining, a method of extraction is employed which will
yield the largest net return. The method employed
must be safe and must also permit optimum
extraction under the particular geological conditions
encountered. The best method of stoping depends
on:
 the geological characteristics that
determine the area of back or walls that
will be self-supporting during the
removal of ore
 the nature and size of supports required
 and the support required for permanent
openings to prevent subsidence.
Ore bodies come in every
imaginable geometric shape.
While surface mines usually
apply the "Open Pit" method to
almost any ore configuration, a
large number of underground
mining methods have been
developed primarily in response
to the requirements of differing
geometry and the geomechanical
properties of the host and
surrounding rock.
• A few of the underground mining methods, such as, Avoca
and Vertical Crater Retreat (VCR), have been patented
resulting in new names for variations (Modified Avoca and
Modified VCR).
• Moreover, different names are often applied to the same
mining method (Blasthole Stoping and Longhole Open
Stoping are frequently used to refer to the same mining
method).
• Other mining method names are merely variations or closer
definition of others (Sublevel Stoping is typically Blasthole
carried out with more than one drill drift per level interval
and Sublevel Retreat simply defines the direction of the
mining).
• The many underground mining methods are difficult to
categorize rationally because each application depends not
only on ore body geometry, but includes other
considerations, such as ground conditions, grade
distribution, scale of operations, as well as the presence of
structures (i.e. faults, dykes, etc.).
 Geological Considerations

• Ore occurs in many forms and is associated with many

types of geologic structures.
• The geologic conditions and ore occurrence are major
factors in determining the type of mining method.
• Knowledge of the geology of a deposit will help the mine
operators in the actual mining and may help to discover
new ore deposits.
 Geological Considerations

• The physical characteristics which dictate the choice of a

stoping method may be grouped as follows:
 strength of the ore and wall rocks
 shape, area, volume, thickness, dip
 continuity of the ore
 depth below surface and nature of the cap rock
 position of the ore body
a) Strength of Ore and Wall rock
• One of the first factors to be considered, for it determines
the safe size of excavations, the length of time that they
may be left open with safety, or the support which wll be
required. The strength of solid rock depends on the
existence of fractures and planes of weakness.
• Often newly exposed rock is strong, but after it has been
exposed to air for a period of time, it may slough or swell
and become difficult to support. Ore and wall strength in
relation to the size of the deposit, especially the horizontal
area is important.
b) Shape, Size and Dip of Deposit
• The attitude of a deposit will
directly influence the method
chosen to mine it. A deposit
which is regular in shape may
require less support during
stoping operations than one
which is irregular.
• There is a limit to the length or
width of an unsupported arch or
span that will possess sufficient
strength to resist the pressures
of the overlying rock masses.
c) Depth below Surface
• Usually, as depth of mining increases, the mining method
must be changed because the openings require more
support. The pressure on mine openings increases
proportionately with depth below the surface.
• The direction of pressure in walls or roofs depends largely
on the attitude of deposits and most be considered in the
design of a method of stope support.
• The history of the development of
underground openings in mining
and other types of underground
excavations, such as tunnels,
serves as one of the most reliable
guides in the appraisal of rock
structure stability.
 One logical procedure to categorize mining methods is to
divide them into the following three generic classifications.
1) Methods producing openings naturally supporting or
requiring minimum artificial support (Room and Pillar, etc.)
2) Methods requiring substantial artificial support (Cut and Fill,
etc.)
3) Caving methods where failure of the back (roof) is integral
to the extraction process (Block Caving, etc.)
A more popular way to categorize mining methods is to
divide the mining methods into bulk mining (Blasthole, etc.)
and selective mining (Drift and Fill, etc.).
Mining Method Selection

• To select a mining method, certain data describing the ore

body is required.
 Geological cross sections and a longitudinal
section
 Level maps
 Block model (grade model)
 Geomechanical characteristics of the host and
surrounding rock.
 Mining Method Selection

• One approach is to find one or more comparable ore bodies

that are being or have been mined successfully and use
that mining method(s) to determine the most likely methods
to investigate further.
• Another approach is to determine applicable mining
methods and develop a short list for detailed consideration
through a process of rationalization.
 Mining Selection Methods
• Minimize pre-production development (top down versus bottom up
mining).
• Minimize stope development (selective versus bulk mining methods).
• Maximize gravity assist (underhand versus overhand).
• Maximize natural support (partial extraction versus complete extraction).
• Minimize retention time of broken ore (open stoping versus shrinkage).
• Maximize flexibility and adaptability based on size, shape, and distribution
of target mining areas.
• Maximize flexibility and adaptability based on distribution and variability
of ore grades.
• Maximize flexibility and adaptability to sustain the mining rate for the mine
life.
• Maximize flexibility and adaptability based on access requirements.
• Maximize flexibility and adaptability based on opening stability, ground
support requirements, hydrology (ground water and surface runoff), and

surface subsidence.
 Stope Naturally Supported

a) Open Stope
• Small ore bodies may be mined
from wall to wall without any
pillars being left. Where ore
bodies are larger, pillars or ore
are left to keep the roof span to
a safe dimension. Pillars may
be regularly or randomly
spaced and the method may be
applied to either horizontal or
inclined deposits. It finds its
greatest application in flat-lying,
bedded - type deposits.
 Stope Naturally Supported

b) Open Stope with Pillars

• Pillars of ore are left to support the back of stopes in deposits of
uniformly low-grade ore, generally extending over a large area and either
horizontally or flat dipping, in which it is cheaper to leave pillars of ore
rather than to use artificial support.
• The required support depends on:
 total weight on the pillars
 nature of the roof, which controls the length of unsupported
span
 nature of the floor which controls bearing area and size of
pillar
 strength of the ore which controls the minimum size of pillars
 Stope Naturally Supported

) Open Stope with Pillars

Methods of excavating
development openings and
rooms are quite variable. The
principle concern in excavation
in relation to stability is usually
care in blasting. Blast holes
should be placed in a proper
manner and only an optimum
amount of explosives used so
that a minimum of overbreak or
fracturing beyond the desired
surface occurs.
 Regular Pillars

• Pillars are usually 10 to

40 ft in diameter,
spaced from 20
to 50 ft and comprise
from 10-35% of the
extraction.
 Random Pillars

• The presence of pillars is

determined entirely by the
presence of faults,
fractures,or weak beds .
Stope Artifically Supported

a) Shrinkage Stopes
• The characteristic feature
of shrinkage stopes is that
broken ore is left in the
stope to support the walls
while the remainder of the
stope is mined.
• The broken ore serves as a
floor on which the miners
may stand while mining
the ore above them
Shrinkage Stopes
• Because the ore expands when it is broken, about 35% of it
must be drawn off at the bottom during the mining process.
After the stope is completed, the ore is drawn out and the
space may be later backfilled.
• Additional cost is involved in building up the broken ore
reserve upon which the method depends.
• Since the ore must stand by itself during the whole mining
process, it must be strong over the length and width of the
stope. The walls may be fractured but must not be
excessively weak because they will then slough off as the
ore is withdrawn and the ore will be diluted.
Advantages
• If ore is strong and walls firm,
a mine can quickly be
developed to produce ore.
Development work required is
low.
• broken ore serves to support
the walls, eliminating the use
of timber
• Cheap mining method when
properly applied
• Not necessary to tram ore in
stope
• Good ventilation
Disadvantages
• Only 26-40% of ore is
immediately available
• Capital is tied up until mining
is completed
• Little chance of sorting out
waste rock
• Large blocks may be broken
• Difficult to travel over broken
ore
• Accidents from sudden
settling of broken ore
 Cut & Fill Stopes

The purpose of
mechanized cut
and fill mining is to
safely extract
relatively high
grade ore from an
irregular orebody
with minimum
dilution.
 Cut & Fill Stopes

• The ore is removed from

the stope with
mechanized mobile
equipment. When a slice
of ore has been mined,
hydraulically placed
sandfill is poured into
the mined out area and
serves both as a floor
when the next slice is
mined out and as
support for the walls.
 Cut & Fill Stopes

Each horizontal
slice (or cut) is
mined 8 - 9 feet
thick, by
downbreak
blasting, with
about 10 feet
advance each
blast. This
downbreaking is
commonly called
breasting.
 Cut & Fill Stopes
Engineering considerations
• When sufficient information has been obtained from diamond drill core samples of a
particular mining area, three main factors determine the feasibility of using
mechanized cut and fill mining. They are :
 competency of the ground
 overall grade of ore
 length, width, and dip
• The competency of the back and backs must be sufficient to allow workmen to safely
work under the conditioned ground. As a general rule, 10 - 12' is left open to
downbreak into on each successive cut, giving the stope an overall backheight of
about 20'. The walls may be further controlled, where required, with additional
sandfill. Areas where sand is poured tight to the back are called floodfilled.
• Cut and fill mining is a fairly costly mining method as the back and walls must be
conditioned every cut to provide a safe working face. The overall lifetime grade of ore
in the proposed stope must be sufficient to support this conditioning cost.
 Cut & Fill Stopes

• The length, width and dip of the orebody play a major role in the using cut
and fill mining. Generally, cut and fill stopes are 600' - 1000' long, vary
from a minimum width of ( 8 ' Mines Act ) to 35' and are particularly suited
to areas where the dip varies or is shallow. Where the ore exceeds safe
width, pillars are left as support. ( These can later be retrieved, using
Undercut & Fill mining.)
• Layout
• In the layout phase of employing cut and fill mining, four major items are
considered for the a particular stope. These factors are : Sill Elevation,
Ventilation, Ore Removal, Services, and Supplies
 New stopes are silled out at base of rail of the level, and
mined in 200 - 400 ' vertical slices. Generally the last 30 - 50 '
below the base of rail of the next level is left as a crown pillar.
 Cut & Fill Stopes

• Particular attention must be made

to provide adequate ventilation to
supply oxygen to breathe and to
remove the diesel emissions and
dust. Stopes are designed to
have ventilation raises close to
each end to provide through
ventilation. Manways are the
other major ventilation openings.
Each stope has a ventilation
manway at each end. A push/pull
fan system provides air
circulation.
• Muck is removed from the cut
and fill stope through footwall
orepasses.
 Cut & Fill Stopes
• These footwall orepasses are
designed to be outside the ore zone
so that they will remain intact in the
relatively strong footwall rock, as
mining advances upwards.
• Most raises are raise bored and
culvert lined. A ladder, landings and
a steelslide are installed inside the
culvert to provide access for men
and supplies from the level above.
Air, water and sandfill lines provide
services from the level above.
• Additional manways are created for
sandfill drainage and service
manways which provide access for
the L.H.D. equipment.
 Undercut & Fill Stopes

• A mining method in which

miners mine the shallowest
level first.
• Once the shallowest level is
mined, they fill all of the tunnels
with a mixture of sand and
cement. The miners then
proceed to mine the next lower
level.

The roof of each successive level is thus made of cemented sand which has
a very predictable strength and low density. Undercut-and-fill is a useful
technique when the orebody is composed of very heavy ore that could
otherwise easily collapse on miners.
Undercut & Fill Stopes
c) Undercut & Fill Stopes
• A block of ore such as a rib pillar is extracted by mining
successive layers, or cuts, downward. A cut runs the full length
of the block. After a cut of ore has been completely mined out,
continuous laminated timber stringers are constructed along
the sides for the full length of the cut, and logs are laid across
the stringers to form a timber mat. The cut is then filled with
sandfill.
 Stope Artificially Supported
d) Stull Stopes
Most commonly applied to open stope mining in gently dipping veins.
Narrow pillars separate the stopes but two or three rows of timber
stulls (posts) help to support the center until the stope is mined.
d) Stull Stopes
Stulls can form the base
for chutes and manway
linings, and to support
local loose as may
develop. Stull stopes are
commonly used on steep
slopes where in narrow
ore in competes with
shrinkage stoping,
perhaps most effectively in
small orebodies and when
wage rates are low.
d) Stull Stopes
The greatest advantage of
stull stoping is when
widths are narrow enough
to obstruct free flow of
shrinkage ore. This
condition also involves the
lowest cost for timber.
 Stope Artifically Supported

e) Square Set Stopes

• The square-set method is
used where the ore is
weak, and the walls are not
strong enough to support
themselves. The value of
the ore must be relatively
high, for square-setting is
slow, expensive, and
requires highly skilled
miners and supervisors.
e) Square Set Stopes
• In square-set stoping, one
small block of ore is removed
and replaced by a "set" or
cubic frame of timber which is
immediately set into place.
The timber sets interlock and
are filled with broken waste
rock or sand fill, for they are
not strong enough to support
the stope walls. The waste
rock or sand fill is usually
added after one tier of sets, or
stope cut, is made.
e) Square Set Stopes
• This mining method
normally mines upwards.
Due to the restricted width
of the sets, a slusher is
used to remove the muck.
 f) Slusher Stopes

• Although not a distinct mining

method, slusher stopes are
unique in the method of
removing the broken ore. The
trend in mining today is
towards trackless high
production/high extraction
methods using L.H.D.
equipment. In the past, the
slusher was extensively used.
f) Slusher Stopes
f) Slusher Stopes
 Sublevel Open stoping
Sublevel Open Stoping, SLOS,
recovers the ore in open stopes,
normally backfilled after mined out.
Stopes are often large, with largest
dimensions in vertical direction.
The orebody is divided into
separate stopes for SLOS mining.
Between stopes, ore sections are
set aside for pillars, to support the
hanging wall. Pillars are normally
shaped as vertical beams, across
the orebody. Horizontal sections of
ore are also left, to support mine
workings above the producing
stopes, known as crown pillars.
 Sublevel Open Stoping

• Sublevel drifts for long hole drilling

are prepared inside the orebody, in-
between main levels. Drifts are
strategically located, the base for the
longhole rig, to drill the longhole
blast pattern. The drill pattern is a
most important document for
longhole blasting. The drill pattern
specifies where blastholes are
collared, depth and angle of each
hole. All parameters which must be
set with high precision, for a
successful performance of the
longhole blast.
Sublevel Stoping
 Modified Avoca

• Modified Avoca – the ore is

drilled by long hole and
drawn off in retreating
vertical slices, followed
closely by placement of
rock fill dropped "over the
bench" or "over the fill"
(via access to the back of
the stope from the footwall
drift).
 Vertical Crater Retreat Stopes

Vertical Crater Retreat Stopes

Blasthole mining is a general term
applied to mining methods that
employ long hole drilling for the
production of ore.
In most blasthole methods the ore
is blasted into a vertical opening.
The blastholes may be small
diameter long hole carbide drill
holes or larger diameter holes
drilled with in-the-hole (ITH) drills,
or they may be a combination of
both.
 Vertical Crater Retreat Stopes

Vertical crater retreat is a comparatively new method

of blasthole mining in which only large diameter ITH
holes are used to blast down horizontal slices of ore
into an opening below the block of ore being mined.
The method uses the 'cratering' effect of an explosive
charge being blasted close to the end of the hole.
Mining retreats vertically as successive horizontal
slices are blasted.
In the case of narrow stopes where hole deterioration
is a problem, a slot is brought up at one end of the
block via cratering and the remainder of the block is
slashed into it. Mining retreats horizontally as
successive vertical slices are blasted.
Vertical Crater Retreat Stopes
 Vertical Crater Retreat Stopes

Vertical block mining is the term most often used for this method. In VBM the
workplace is divided into a series of vertical blocks and the blocks may be mined
on a retreat basis working from the ends of the workplace. This may be repeated
on several different horizons in an extensive VBM area.

Improvements
- Increased productivity
- Increased production rate
- Reduced total operating costs
- Improved working conditions
Pro's
- Flexibility to follow changes in Strike/Dip
- adaptable to existing workplaces
- Maximize ore recovery
- Mininize dilution of rock/sand
- Improve ground conditions
- Minimize secondary mining
- Increase equipment utilization
- Minimize capital expenditures
 Vertical Crater Retreat Stopes

Advantages over Cut & Fill Methods

Vertical Block Mining provides 3 distinct advantages over Cut
& Fill Methods:
 SAFETY
- a reduction of the exposure to open ground
conditions and an improved workplace
environment.
 PRODUCTIVITY
- increased versatility by providing multiple
headings.
 COST
- a saving of ground conditioning materials
 Caved Stopes

Block caving
Some ore cave readily, and if the
ore body contains enough tonnage,
the block caving method may be
used. After the stope is developed,
the ore breaks of its own accord; it
does not need to be drilled and
blasted. Caving is a large
production low-cost method. If an
underground opening is large
enough, it will eventually cave, but
a caving system requires that the
ore or rock will cave over a small
unsupported area.
 Caved Stopes

• Block caving is usually

used to mine large
orebodies that have
consistent grade
throughout.
• BLOCK CAVING is the
lowest cost of all
underground mining
methods. It is a mass
mining method where the
extraction and breaking of
ore depends largely on
gravity.
 Caved Stopes

A thick block of ore is undercut by

emoving a slice of ore. The un-supported
block of ore breaks and caves under its
own weight. The broken ore is drawn off
rom below as the caved mass falls due to
gravity.
There are three major systems of
ecovering the broken ore from the block
cave. The GRIZZLY SYSTEM is a full
The SLUSHER SYSTEM uses a
gravity system wherein ore from the
slusher scraper for the main
drawpoints flows directly to TRANSFER
production unit. It is used where rock
RAISES after sizing at the grizzly. Sledge
breaks into moderate-sized
hammers are used to break oversize. The
fragments. Finally, LHD (Load-Haul-
ore is then gravity loaded into cars for
Dump) SYSTEM is used where rock
ransport to the concentrator.
breaks into relatively large
fragments.
 Caved Stopes Sublevel caving
SUBLEVEL CAVING is a mass mining method based upon
gravity flow of blasted ore and caved waste rock. Its major
advantage is safety, since all mining activities are
conducted from relatively stable openings. Mining entails
a) drifting and reinforcing, b) fan drilling, c) production
blasting (fragmentation), d) ore drawing, loading and
transport. Mining activities can be standardized and
mechanized .
Disadvantages include the following. There is relatively
high dilution of ore by caved waste. All ore must be drilled
and blasted in order to obtain a coarse material suitable
for extraction by gravity flow. Some ore is lost in passive
zones between those of active flow. A large amount of
development is required.
Ore handling

• Drawpoints are excavated below the stope

bottom for safe mucking with LHD-loaders,
which combine with trucks or rail cars, for
longer transport. Different layouts of
undercut-drawpoints are practised. The
trough-shaped stope bottom is typical,
accessed through loading drifts at regular
spacing. Developing the set of drifts and
drawpoints underneath the stope is an
extensive and costly procedure.
• A simpler layout, to the conventional
drawpoint muck-out system, uses a loading
level integrated with the undercut. Mucking
out is made directly on the stope bottom,
inside the open stope. The LHD loader will
be working inside the open stope, and is for
safety reason operated by radio control, the
operator based inside the access drift.
 Caved Stopes - Topslicing

• The supporting timber at the

top slice is only temporary.
The waste rock above caves
downward. The mining of the
orebody starts at the top and
proceeds in slices downward.
The ore removed at the level
below. The cover ore above
the mining area is caved after
each slice is removed.
 Caved Stopes - Topslicing

• After the slice has become wide

enough, usually 3 or more sets wide,
a floor of timber, called a mat, is laid
on the bottom of the workings. The
overlying waste rock is allowed to
cave. The mat keeps the rock and
ore separated. Stulls or props are
used for support of the mat while
mining, and which are blasted as
mining progresses, become part of
the mat that descends to form the
next mining floor.
 Caved Stopes - Resuing Method
• Much high-grade ore occurs in
narrow veins. The rescuing method
is an attempt to keep the ore and
waste separated during mining.
When the stope is started, the ore
and waste are drilled. The waste is
loaded and blasted first. The waste
is leveled off and if the ore is high
grade, a wooden floor may be laid
on the waste. The ore is then
blasted down and scraped out of
the stope. After the ore is blasted
down, the stope is ready to be
drilled again.
 Timber Slot Method
• The slot method of mining is a
systematic way of mining and filling
wide stopes. A raise must be driven
from one level to the next. This raise
extends from the footwal to the
hanging wall of the vein and is
termed a slot raise. The entire width
of the vein is mined.
• During mining, it is necessary to
maintain a waste pass from the level
above and an ore pass to the level
below. Timber methods are used in
weak ground that requires continual
support. These methods are slow
and costly, therefore the ore must
be reasonably high grade.
 Caved Stopes - Slice Timber Method

A narrow vein, about 1 set wide, can be

mined by the slice system. A stope is
started from the lower level by mining
3 or 4 floors up and dropping the ore
to the level below. A slide may be
installed and waste fill dropped down
from the level above to fill under the
slide.
Drilling and blasting the whole cut
gives better production rates if caving
does not occur.
• A narrow vein, about 1 set
wide, can be mined by the
slice system. A stope is
started from the lower level
by mining 3 or 4 floors up and
dropping the ore to the level
below. A slide may be
installed and waste fill
dropped down from the level
above to fill under the slide.
• Drilling and blasting the
whole cut gives better
production rates if caving
does not occur.
 Caved Stopes - Longwall Mining

LONGWALL MINING is used

primarily in the extraction of coal,
but may be used in extraction of
flat-lying oil shale, salt,
phosphate, or sedimentary
metalliferous beds. It might be
considered as a modification of
room and pillar mining, but offers
better opportunity for
mechanization.
• Extraction is from long panels,
with widths up to 1000 feet where
roof conditions are favorable.
 Caved Stopes - Longwall Mining

• Mining of coal or ore is

accomplished by cutting
machines or SHEARER-
LOADERS or PLOWS, which cut
the coal or ore along the
longwall face.
• The mine is protected by a
shield which supports the roof
and separates the mining
operation from GOB fill.
• One disadvantage of the
method is the time required to
move to the next longwall
position.
 Solution Method

• Solution mining is an old

system used for producing
soluble minerals such as salt,
or minerals that can be
melted by hot water, such as
sulfur. One method is the
bottom injection method.
Water injected through the
center pipe dissolves the salt.
The salt carrying solution
flows up the outer casing of
the pipe.
 Solution Method - Frasch Process

• Sulfur production by the Frasch

process is a common solution
system. Hot water is introduced
into the hole melting the sulfur.
• The molten sulfur collects at the
bottom of the hole and starts to
flow up the inner pipe.
Compressed air is introduced
which helps raise the liquid
sulfur and excess hot water up
the pipe.
 Solution Method - In-Situ Leaching

In-situ leaching has been used in

recovering low grade uranium ores. A
series of holes are drilled into the ore
zone, the solvent is pumped down
injection wells and recovered in
production wells. The solvent
dissolves the mineral, and then flows
to and up the production well.
One drawback to this system is the
possible contamination of the natural
ground water with the solvent.
 Solution Method
In-Situ Leaching after Atomic Detonation

• Tests have been made to

detonate an atomic bomb at
the bottom of the ore body so
in-situ leaching can be done.
After the area has cooled,
production and injection
wells are drilled into the
mass. It is believed that there
will be sufficient
fragmentation for good
recovery by solvent mining.
 Solution Method - Heap Leaching

Heap leaching for recovery of

copper, gold and silver has
increased in recent years. An
imperable pad is prepared on
surface. Broken ore is placed on
this pad. and solvent is sprayed
over the top of the flattened pile.
The solvent percolates down
through the pile, and the mineral
bearing solution is collected on the
pad and run through a refinery to
collect the dissolved mineral.
Sulfuric acid is commonly used to
recover copper, while a cyanide
solution is used to recover gold
and silver.
 Dilution
Modern bulk mining methods reduce direct operating costs and facilitate
management of the mine operations, but a common drawback is often increased
dilution.
For ore bodies of vast expanse, dilution is not a problem; however, most mines
deal with ore zones of finite width and many experience dilution as high as 20%,
or even 25% when bulk-mining methods are employed. Dilution is the great
nemesis for miners because the cost of dilution is not only the obvious direct
cost (dilution tons displace ore tons in the ore handling and process circuits),
but also includes significant indirect costs. For example, each ton of sterile rock
or backfill that circulates through the mill carries mineral values with it to the
tailings. The minimization of dilution should be given weight in the selection and
subsequent application of a mining method. The causes of excess dilution
include using the wrong mining method and related factors.
You have reached the end of Unit 14.