Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Microwave Communication
Dr. Hoda Boghdady
Lecture Outline
• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• High frequency main characteristics
• The Microwave band: Advantages and
disadvantages
• Line of Sight (LOS) vs. wireless system
(NLOS)
• Microwave Transmission System
Components
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Microwave Frequency Band
Designations
Microwave Applications
• Telecommunication transmission system
• Remote sensing
• Heating (cooking, industrial application)
• Medical applications (although laser is
replacing it – better resolution and more
power focusing)
Transmission System
• Transmission systems can be categorized
into two main category:
– Guided system (cable system): a point to point
connection must be made, a physical wire is
installed, a frame is transmitted (baseband
transmission)
– Unguided system (free space): point to point is
not necessary, only stations and antennas are
installed, signal is transmitted by a carrier in air
(carrier transmission)
Microwave Systems
• Line of Sight (microwave system)
• Satellite system
• Cellular system
– Fixed (e.g. WLL)
– mobile
• Home networking (inside buildings)
– WIFI, WIMAX, Bluetooth
Microwave Communication -
Advantages
• Ease of installation (no digging), important over
water, mountain, historical places etc.
• Fast deployment of the system
• Ease and flexibility of upgrading (capacity and
services)
• Low in vestment needed for large coverage area
(pay as you build)
• Mobility is possible (PMP)
• Redeployment of radio hardware
• Back-up link can be realized easily and efficiently
• Broadcast applications (PMP)
Microwave Communication -
Disadvantages
• Clearance for L.O.S
• Frequency license and B.W. allocation
permission
• Some area restrictions
• Electromagnetic radiation safety and power
control
• Fading, interference and jamming (security
issues)
• Standards are imposed by outside agencies
System Configuration
• Point to Multi-Point (PMP)
– This system connects many users to one base
station, the base station antenna is
omnidirectional the receiver antenna may be
either omni- or directive. Coverage area is
usually limited to few kms, higher power
• Point to Point (PTP)
– In this system the receiver and the transmitter
antennas are on the same line of sight, a highly
directive antenna is used at both sides. The hop
length can be as 50 – 65 km long, lower power
PTP vs PMP
• PTP • PMP
– 1 Tx, 1Rx – 1 Tx, multi-Rx
– Low power radiated – High power required
– Line of sight is a must – Interference
– Path clearance – Multiple reflection
– High tower – Omni antennas
– Directive antenna – Small coverage area
– Long distance cover. – Access techniques
Important Issues to Consider
• EMI –Security, system performance
• EMC – system immunity to interference
• Interference problems – Freq. management
• Output radiated power control for health
and safety consideration
• New wireless network’s terms : WIFI,
WIMAX, Bluetooth, home networking, …..
Concepts and Definitions
and
System Overview
Definitions
• Decibel and Neper
• S/N, C/N, E/N
• Reflection and SWR
• Noise Figure
• G/T (high gain directive antennas)
• System impairments
• Passive vs. active devices
• Linear and non-linear characteristics
• Microwave system components
Decibels (dB)
Decibels is a power ratio defined by
dB = 10 log(P2/P1)
P2 and P1 are the output and input power
respectively, in many cases P1 is a reference
power level, i.e. 1watt, 1mwatt, therefore
dBw, dBm
For antennas dBi is usually used to specify
power referred to isotropic radiated power
Note that :
dBx represents an absolute value of power
While dB represents a relative power level
P2 V22 / R2
dB 10 log 10 log 2
P1 V1 / R1
if R1 R2 (matching)
2
V2 V2
dB 10 log 20 log
V1 V1
V2
Np ln 1Np 8.686dB
V1
Noise Figure
As the receiving signal is very critical in
telecommunication systems, noise
contribution from the receiver is a critical
issue.
Noise contribution of the receiver itself
should be kept to a minimum.
Noise figure (NF) is always specified at the
receiver only. It is the ratio of the S/N at
the input to the S/N at the output.
Noise Figure – cont.
S / N ) in Sin N out Best case
NF
N dev 0
S / N ) out S out N in
1 GNin N dev N dev
NF 1 NF = 0 dB
G N in GNin
N dev Worst case
NFdB 10 log 1
GNin N dev GNin
NF = 3 dB
Noise Figure – cont.
For cascaded elements
NF2 1 NF3 1
NF NF1 ......
G1 G1G2
If G1 G2 G3 .... 1
NF NF1
Noise Temperature
• For antennas effective noise temperature is
used instead of NF
• Te = N/(kB)
– N = noise generated by the antenna
– K = Boltzman constant
– B = antenna B.W.
• To = Noise at room temperature = 290°K
S/N, C/N and Eb/N
At the receiver what matter is the ratio of the signal to
the noise not the signal level
S/N is the amount by which the signal exceeds the noise
level (analog signal)
C/N is the carrier level to the noise level
Eb/N is equivalent to S/N for digital signals, Eb is the
energy contained in one bit, N is the noise power per
1Hz cycle, BER is specified at a given receiver
threshold
All above ratios are measured in dB
Reflection Coefficient
• At any impedance mismatch there will be a
reflected wave, therefore all terminations should be
matched, it varies from 0 to 1 in magnitude
Z 2 Z1
Z 2 Z1
• Reflection should be measure at the point of
concern
• Reflection coefficient is used to measure
impedances at microwave frequencies
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
• SWR is standing wave ratio on a RF transmission
lines, it is independent on position for lossless system,
it varies from 1 up to ∞ (3.5)
• It is used to measure reflection between the feeder and
the antenna
• It can be measure at any point in the T.L.
V 1
SWR max
V min
1
G/T – Receiver Figure of Merit
• The higher this ratio the better the sensitivity
of the system to weak signals
• G is the gain of the antenna in dBi, it depends
on the antenna size, wavelength and type
(directive or omni-directional)
• T is the total system noise temperature in
degree Kelvin (Ta and Tr)
• G/T varies from –ve values up to 10 dB/K for
omni-directional, can reach 35dB/K for
directive antenna
Passive vs. Active Devices
• Passive: means devices that doesn’t add power
to the system (T.L., circulator, filters, antennas,
etc…
– Passive devices are usually cheaper, easier to
design, can have broadband c/cs
• Active: means devices that adds power to the
system (amplifiers)
– Active devices need more critical designs, B.W.
limited, power limited, more expensive and need
special operation conditions (Temp.)
Linear and Non-linear
Characteristics
• For microwave devices input-output
characteristics and frequency response are
very important
• Most used devices are linear except:
– Mixers and power amplifiers
• Non linear devices can cause signal
distortion (AM to PM, and intermodulation
noise)
Noise & Interference
• Internal noise can be caused by equipment and
devices in the station itself it is usually a
thermal noise coming from the electrons
motions
• External noise is any unwanted signal coming
from the outside it usually has a white
Gaussian distribution
• Noise level should always be kept lower than
the threshold level
Noise & Interference – cont.
• Interference is any unwanted signal in the
operating band
• Interference can be internally, antenna side
lobes, antenna back radiation, bad
branching unit, bad filters, bad design, or
intentionally transmitted signal for jamming
• Interference can be overcame by pre-
frequency survey, and antenna adjustment
Intermodulation Noise
• Intermodulation noise is caused by non-
linear devices
• It may be caused by the power amplifier at
the transmitter
• The worst is the 3rd order IM noise
• The 3dB compression point set the upper
limit for operation
Microwave vs. Low Frequency
• Wavelength is the distance a wave travel to
have a 2 phase change (comes to the same
point – assuming sinusoidal wave)
– Phase Difference is very important
• F=10Ghz, = 3cm ( /2 antenna = 1.5cm)
• F=60hz, =5x106 m = 5000Km ( /2 =
2500km)
Sinusoidal Wave
d
2
t
F = 10 GHz = 3 cm
F = 50 Hz = 5000 Km
Microwave Frequency Main
Characteristics
• Wave length = speed of light / frequency
– The higher the frequency the smaller the wave
length – (smaller dimensions, scattering, energy
focusing, phase reference…etc.)
• Lumped elements cannot be used
• Different transmission lines
• Frequency dependent components
• Phase references
Microwave System
Information
A/D & signal
processing
Microwave Modulation
IF
Transceiver
Transmitter/
Microwave Receiver
Radio Communication
• Radio communications can be split into 3
types: F
– Simplex TX RX
F1
– Full duplex TX RX
F2
• FDD (FD duplex) RX TX
– Half duplex
• TDD (TD duplex) F1
TX RX
F1
RX TX
Main Component of a Microwave
system
• Intermediate stage (IF modulator)
• Up- and Down- conversion (mixer)
• Filters (very important)
• Amplifiers (power and low noise)
• T.L. and feeders
• Towers
• Antennas
Microwave Transmitter and Receiver
Equipment Block Diagram
Telemetry & OW
Information
RF Unit
BB Unit (IFU + Up-
Converter)
Gs Pt Cmin FM L p L f Lb Gt Gr
• A = roughness factor
– 4 for very smooth terrain including over water
– 1 for average terrain
– ½ for mountains and very rough terrain
• B = factor to convert worst month to annual
probability (for worst month = 1)
– ½ hot humid areas
– ¼ for average inland areas
– ⅛ for mountains or very dry areas
Reliability Objectives
• Reliability objectives set a maximum allowable
time of failure due to all causes as a percentage of
total service time during a given period over a
given route length, e.g. failure should be limited to
0.01% annually over a 400km route
• Or the permitted ‘unavailability’ is 0.01%
• This unavailability corresponds to 99.99%
reliability or availability
How to calculate Availability
• First outages and errors are summarized to
calculate the total amount of failure (all types
of failure), the percentage is then calculated
over one year
• This value is the system unavailability
• Reliability or availability =
100(1-unavailability) = 100(1-U)
Unavailability
• Probability of unavailability due to multipath
fading
U ndp a b 2.5 10 6 f D 3 10 F / 10
U ndp
U div “I” can vary from 10 to 100
I