ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE

STRESSES
TENSILE, COMPRESSIVE,
AND SHEAR
1
Machine Design
2 1.0 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Figure 1
3 Properties of Materials

 Proportional limit (A) – is defined as that stress at which the

stress-strain curve begins to deviate from the straight line.
 Elastic limit (B) - is defined as the stress developed in the material
without any permanent set.
 Yield point – (C and D) – is a point where the material yield before
the load and there is an appreciable strain without any increase in
stress.
 Ultimate stress (E) – is the largest stress obtained by dividing the
largest value of the load reached in a test to the original cross-
sectional area of the test piece.
4 Properties of Materials (cont.)

 Breaking stress (F) – is the stress corresponding to a point where

the specimen breaks area or breaking force divided by the original
cross-sectional area.
 Percentage reduction in area – is the difference between the
original cross-sectional area and cross-sectional area at the neck
(i.e. where the fracture takes place).
 Percentage elongation – is the percentage increase in standard
gauge length (i.e. original length) obtained by measuring the
fractured specimen after bringing the broken parts together.
 5 WORKING STRESS

 WORKING STRESS – is a stress lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which
failure of the material takes place. Also called design stress, safe or allowable stress.
 6 FACTOR OF SAFETY
FACTOR OF SAFETY – is the ratio of the maximum stress
to the working stress.
Maximum stress
Factor of safety 
Working or Design stress
For ductile materials e.g. mild steel,
Yield Point stress
Factor of safety 
Working or Design stress
For brittle materials e.g. cast iron
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety 
Working or Design stress
7 TABLE 1 FACTORS OF SAFETY (DESIGN FACTORS) – V.M.
FAIRES

CAST IRON,
STEEL, DUCTILE METALS BRITTLE TIMBER
METALS
KIND OF LOAD
Based on
Based on Yield
Ultimate Based on Ultimate Strength
Strength
Strength
Dead load, N = 3–4 1.5 – 2 5–6 7
Repeated, one
direction, gradual 6 3 7–8 10
(mild shock), N =
Repeated,
reversed, gradual 8 4 10 – 12 15
(mild shock), N =
Shock, N = 10 – 15 5–7 15 – 20 20
8 2.0 SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAIN

 Load - is defined as any external force acting on a machine

part.
 Four Types of Load
 Dead or steady load – a load that does not change in
magnitude or direction.
 Live or variable load – a load that changes continually.
 Suddenly applied or shock loads – a load that is
suddenly applied or removed.
 Impact load – a load that has initial velocity.
9 Stress and strain
 Stress – is the internal force per unit area set up at various
sections of the body.
P
Stress, 
A

Where P = Force or load acting on a body, and

A = Cross-sectional area of the body
 Strain – is the deformation per unit length when a system
of forces or loads act on a body,


Strain,     L
L or
Where DL = Change in length of the body, and
`````` L = Original length of the body
10 Tensile stress and strain

Figure 2
P
Tensile Stress: t 
A

Tensile Strain: t 
L
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14 Compressive stress and strain

Figure 4
P
Compressive Stress: c 
A

Compressive Strain: c 
L
 Young’s Modulus or Modulus of
15
Elasticity

In SI units: (Table 2)
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 23 3.0 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
 Shear Stress – is the stress induced when a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite forces acting tangentially across the resisting section tending the
body to shear off.

P
Shear Stress: 
A
Shear Strain – is measured by the angular deformation accompanying the shear
stress
 3.0 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
24
 3.0 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN
25

If a hole of diameter ‘d’ is to be punched in a metal plate of thickness ‘ t ’, then

the area to be sheared,

and the maximum shear resistance of the tool or the force required to punch a
hole,
 Shear Modulus or Modulus of
26 Rigidity
  G 
Where  = shear stress
 = shear strain, and
G = Constant of proportionality, known as shear modulus or
modulus of rigidity.
Table 3
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32 4.0 bearing stress
 Bearing Stress – is a localized compressive stress at the surface of
contact between two members of a machine part that are
relatively at rest.
Application: Riveted Joints, Cotter Joints, Knuckle Joints, etc.
For Riveted Joints:
Bearing Stress:
P
 b or  c  
d t  n
Where d = Diameter of the rivet
t = Thickness of the plate
d.t = Projected area of the rivet, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length in bearing or
crushing
33 Bearing stress (cont..)

Figure 7
Note:

Bearing Pressure = is the local compression which exist at the surface of

contact between two members of a machine part that are in relative motion.
34 Bearing stress (cont..)

P
pb 
Ld

Bearing Pressure:

Where pb = Average bearing pressure

P = Radial load on the journal
L = Length of the journal in contact, and
d = Diameter of the journal
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42 Selection of Factor of Safety
 The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these
properties during service.
 The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results
to actual machine parts.
 The reliability of applied load
 The certainty as to exact mode of failure
 The extent of simplifying assumptions
 The extent of localised stresses
 The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture
 The extent of loss of life if failure occurs
 The extent of loss of property if failure occurs
 43 7.0 LINEAR AND LATERAL STRAIN
 Linear strain – is a strain in the direct stress, in its own direction.
 Lateral strain – is a strain at the right angle of the direct stress direction

Figure 10
 44 Poisson’s ratio
Lateral strain

Linear strain
Table 4.4; Poisson’s ratio
45 8.0 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN

 Volumetric Strain – the ratio of the change in volume to the

original volume of the body.

V
v 
V
 Where V = Change in volume and V = Original volume.

V
v    1  2 
V

 Where  = Linear strain

46 9.0 BULK MODULUS

 Bulk Modulus – is the ratio of the direct stress to the

corresponding volumetric strain when a body is subjected
to three mutually perpendicular stresses of equal intensity.

Direct stress 
K 
Volumetric strain  V V
 Relation Between Bulk Modulus and Young’s Modulus.
E
K
31  2 
 Relation Between Young’s Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity
E
G
21   
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 52 10.0 IMPACT STRESS
 Impact stress - is the stress produced in the member due to the falling load.
 53 Impact stress (cont..)
Energy gained by the system = Potential energy lost by weight
 P  l  W  h  l 
1
2

 L  L
  i  A  i  W   h  i 
1
2 E  E 
Therefore:
AL WL
 i 2   i   Wh
2E E
Then:
W 2hAE 
i  1  1  
A WL 
For sudden load: h = 0
2W
i 
A
54 11.0 RESILIENCE

 Strain Energy – is energy absorbed in a body when strained

within elastic limit and is always capable of doing work.

 Resilience - the strain energy stored in a body due to

external loading, within elastic limit.

 Proof resilience - the maximum energy which can be stored

in a body up to the elastic limit.

 Modulus of resilience - the proof resilience per unit volume

of a material.
55 Resilience(cont..)
 Energy Stored: U   2 V
2E
2
 And Modulus of Resilience =
2E

 Where  = Tensile or compressive stress,

V = Volume of the body, and
E = Young’s modulus of the material of the body

2
 When in Shear, Modulus of resilience (shear) =
2G
2
 When in Torsion, Modulus of resilience (torsion) =
4G
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