Microwave Tubes

Gopi Chand. Dasari

M.Tech
Generation of Microwave
Signals:
Microwave Tubes – klystron, reflex klystron,
magnetron and TWT.

Diode semiconductor – Tunnel, Gunn,

Impatt, Varactor diodes, PIN, LSA, Schottky
barrier diode.
Microwave Tubes:

Used for high power/high frequency

combination.
Tubes generate and amplify high levels of
microwave power more cheaply than solid
state devices.
Conventional tubes can be modified for low
capacitance but specialized microwave
tubes are also used.
Microwave Tubes:
Microwave tubes operates at frequencies
from 300MHz to 300GHz with output ranges
from mW to few hundreds of Watts.
The Operating principle of microwave tubes
are velocity modulation concept.
The velocity modulation concept is used to
prevent the problems caused due to transit
time effects which lies in conventional
vacuum tubes.
A large transit time is effectively utilized to
convert the d.c. power to RF power in
microwave tubes.
Introduction:
In conventional Vacuum Tubes, the
modulation of electron beam can be done
by altering the number of electrons.
Also called Velocity-modulated tubes.
Here the electron beam is formed by
varying the velocity of electrons due to this
bunching of electrons occurs.
Limitations of Vacuum tubes over
semiconductors are to be discussed.
Brief discussion of Vacuum tubes and solid
state devices
Vacuum tube Vs Solid state
devices
Vacuum tubes are highly linear with out
negative feedback.
Tolerant to high voltage spikes compared to
semiconductors.
Highly independent of temperature which
means Biasing conditions won’t be critical.
Wider Dynamic Range(high operating
voltages)
Miller effect is predominant i.e. device
capacitances vary with small signal
voltages.
Tubes can be easily replaced by user.
Vacuum tube Vs Solid state
devices
High power consumption. Heat sinks and fans are
needed.
Glass tubes are fragile compared to metal transistors.
High cost compared to transistor equivalents.
High impedance devices which implies impedance
matching is tough.
On the other size side transistors less cost and rugged
compared to vacuum tubes, low power consumption,
and less matching circuits are needed.
But non linear behavior, distortions and device
capacitances(miller effect) and temperature effects
are disadvantages of solid sate devices.
Limitations of Conventional
Tubes
At microwave frequencies above 1GHz, the
conventional tubes are less useful signal
sources.
Effects of inter electrode capacitance.
Effects due lead inductances
Effects due to transit time
Limitations of gain-bandwidth product.
Lead-Inductance and Inter
electrode Capacitance Effects
At high frequencies 1GHz conventional
vacuum tubes are impaired by parasitic
reactances because the circuit
capacitances between tube electrodes and
the circuit inductance of lead wire are too
large for a microwave resonant circuit.
Output efficiency is reduced by series
overload of the input circuit.
Lead-Inductance and Inter
electrode Capacitance Effects
Assumption that the inter electrode
capacitances and cathode inductance are
only parasitic elements.
 Contd..

Conclusion here is the both real part and imaginary

of impedance is inversely proportional to multiple
powers of input frequency. Input impedance small
enough to make signal source short.
 Contd..
Input admittance of pentode circuit

To minimize capacitance and inductance

effects reduction in lead length and
electrode area
Lead Inductance Effect
The lead inductance that appears at the connecting leads
of the vacuum tube elements are the limiting factor at
high frequencies.
Inductance at cathode, inductance at the plate and the
inductance at the grid.
They form tuned circuit by combining with capacitance
which produce the parasitic oscillations.
They create an input impedance matching problem due to
increase in inductive reactance.
Most of the input voltage drops across the inductance and
fractional part appears at the input terminals.
The effect of lead inductance is minimized by decreasing
L, large sized short leads without base pins and by
increasing A.
Transit time effect:
Transit time causes the phase shift between the plate
current and the grid voltage resulting in reducing of
efficiency.
The electron transit angle is defined as

If frequency 1MHz, transit time of 1nsec is only

0.001of signal period. If frequency is increased by
100GHz with same transit time of 1nsec then the
transit time is 100 times time period.
Transit time effect:
At microwave frequencies the transit time is large
compared to the period of microwave signal, and the
potential between the cathode and grid may be from 10 to
100 times during electron transit.
The grid potential during the negative half cycle thus
removes energy that was given in the positive half cycle.
The electrons may oscillate back and forth in some cases
they return to cathode. The overall efficiency reduced in
the vacuum tubes.
At microwave frequencies the transit angle is not
negligible, and the transadmittance becomes a complex
number with a relatively small magnitude. This situation
indicates that the output is decreased.
the transit-angle effect can be minimized by first
accelerating the electron beam with a very high de voltage
and then velocity-modulating it.
Gain-Bandwidth product
Limitation:
In vacuum tubes the maximum gain is
generally achieved by resonating the
output circuit.
Gain-Bandwidth product
Limitation:
Maximum voltage gain at resonance

Bandwidth is measured at half power point

Contd…
The gain bandwidth product of the circuit is

The gain-bandwidth product is in general

independent of frequency.
High gain is achieved by the expense of
narrowing the bandwidth(applicable to
resonant circuits only).
In microwave either reentrant cavities or
slow wave structures are used to obtain
possible high gain over broad bandwidth.
MICROWAVE TUBES:
The microwave tubes are generally
classified into linear beam tubes(O-type)
and crossed field tubes(M-type).
In linear beam tubes, the electron beam is
parallel to both electric and magnetic
fields.
In a linear beam tube a magnetic field
whose axis coincides with that of the
electron beam is used to hold the beam
together as it travels the length of the tube.
In crossed-field tubes, the electron beam is
perpendicular to both electric and magnetic
fields.
Reentrant Cavities:
The re-entrant cavities(also known as irregular shaped
resonators) are used in place of tuned circuits at
microwave frequencies.
Below the microwave frequencies, the cavity resonator
can be represented by lumped-constant resonant circuit.
In order to maintain resonance at high operating
frequency, the values of inductance and capacitance are
decreased to a minimum by using a short wire.
The other advantage of reentrant cavity is ease of
coupling and recollecting of the signal from these
devices.
The metallic boundaries are extended into interior of the
cavity.
 RE-Entrant Cavities:
The most commonly used re-entrant
cavities is the co-axial cavity.

(a) Coaxial cavity (b) Radial Cavity (c)Tunable Cavity

(d) Toroidal Cavity (e) Butter Fly Cavity
Reentrant Cavities:
In the coaxial cavity, the inductance as well
as the resistance losses is reduced, and the
radiation losses are also prevented shelf-
shielding enclosures.
Using transmission line theory
approximation the characteristic
impedance of the co-axial line is given by
Reentrant Cavities
The characteristic impedance of the coaxial
line is given by

When two coaxial lines are shorted at both

the ends and are joined at the centre by a
capacitor, then a structure formed which is
similar to a co-axial cavity. For each shorted
coaxial line the input impedance is given as
Reentrant Cavities
The inductance of the cavity is given by

And the capacitance of the gap is given by

When the circuit is in resonance, the

inductive reactance of the two short
circuited coaxial lines which is in series has
same magnitude to that of capacitive
reactance of the gap
Reentrant Cavities
The solution for above equation gives the
resonant frequency of a coaxial cavity.
Since the equation contains “tan” term, it
has infinite number of solutions with large
number of frequencies. therefore these
type of reentrant cavity can support an
infinite number of resonant frequencies.
The balance of the electric stored energy
appears in the gap, for at resonance the
magnetic and electric stored energies are
equal.
Radial Reentrant cavities:
The radial reentrant cavity is another
commonly used reentrant cavity resonator.
The inductance and capacitance of the
reentrant cavity is expressed by
Linear Beam Tubes(O TYPE)
Klystrons:
KLYSTRONS:
The Two cavity Klystron is widely used microwave amplifier
operated by the principle of velocity and current modulation.
All electrons injected from cathode arrive at first cavity with
uniform velocity and these electrons passes the gap of the
first cavity when zero signal voltages.
Positive half cycles of gap voltage undergo increase in
velocity and negative half cycles of gap voltage undergo
decrease in velocity.
Due to this electron bunching occurs during their travel in
drift space. The variation of electron velocity in drift space is
known as velocity modulation.
The density of electrons in the second cavity gap varies
cyclically with time. The electron beam contains a.c.
component and is called current modulation.
KLYSTRONS:
The maximum bunching should occur in the mid
way between the second cavity grids during
retarding phase.
Kinetic energy is transferred from electrons to the
field of the second cavity.
The electrons emerge from second cavity with
retarded velocity finally terminate at collector.
Characteristics of two cavity klystron amplifier
efficiency:40%
power output : average power (CW power) is up to
500KW and pulsed power is up to 30MW at 10GHz
power gain: about 30dB
KLYSTRONS:
The cavity close to the cathode is known as
buncher cavity or input cavity, which
velocity modulates the electron beam.
The other cavity is called catcher cavity or
output cavity. It catches energy from the
bunched electron beam.
Assumptions made in analysis of two cavity
klystron:
1. the electron beam is assumed to have a
uniform density in the cross section of the
beam.
2. Space charge effects are negligible.
3. The magnitude of the microwave signal
Velocity Modulation Process:
When electrons are accelerated by high DC voltage V 0
before entering the buncher grids, their velocity is
uniform

When a microwave signal is applied to the input

terminal, the gap voltage between the buncher grids
appears as

The modulated velocity in the buncher cavity in terms

of either entering time t0 and exiting time t1 and the
gap transit angle θg is shown in previous figure.
Velocity Modulation Process:
The average transit time through the
buncher gap distance d is

Figure: Signal voltage in the buncher gap

 Velocity Modulation Process:
The average gap transit angle can be
expressed as

The average microwave voltage in the

buncher gap is found by

Let and
Velocity Modulation Process:
From the trigonometric identity [Cos(A-B) –
Cos(A+B)] = 2 Sin A Sin B

It is defined as beam coupling

coefficient at the input cavity gap βi

By increasing the transit angle θ g decreases

the coupling between the electron beam and
the buncher cavity i.e., the velocity modulation
of given microwave signal decreased
Velocity Modulation Process:
After the velocity modulation, the exit
velocity from the buncher gap is given by

Eqn(1)
Velocity Modulation Process:
We know that

The alternate equation of velocity

modulation is given by
Eqn(2)
Velocity Modulation Process:
Figure shows the beam coupling coefficient
Vs gap transit angle
Additive Automatic Klystron(AAK)
device
It works on the principle of automobile’s property of voltage
magnification. Based on Einstein’s principle of random motion.
The magnetic field together with electric field bypasses the
voltage generation(i.e. in the form of potential energy) and
automatic amplification occurs in current.
F(in dB) = O+*O-
F denotes the force
*l on electron
O+ is the orbital motion of electron in clock wise direction
O- is the orbital motion of electron in anti clock wise direction.
l is the length of atom in axial direction.
Applications of Klystrons:
klystrons are used in picture tubes since the vacuum tube
technology exist in it.
Same principle used in refrigerators, space technology for
amplification purpose.
Bunching Process:
The velocity of electrons leaving the buncher cavity is
specified in eqn1&2. the electrons drift in the field-free
space between the two cavities.
The effect of velocity modulation produces bunching of
electron beam or current modulation.
The electrons that pass the buncher cavity at Vs = 0
travel through with unchanged velocity V0 and become
the bunching center, those electrons that pass the
buncher cavity during the positive cycles of microwave
input signal Vs travel faster than the electrons that
pass the gap Vs=0 and the electrons that pass the
buncher cavity during negative cycles travels slower
than electrons that pass the gap at Vs=0.
Bunching Process:
At a distance of ΔL along the beam from the
buncher cavity, the beam electrons have
drifted into dense clusters.

Figure shows the trajectories of minimum,

zero, maximum electron accelaration
Bunching Process:
The distance from the buncher grid to the
location of dense electron bunching for the
electron at tb is Eqn (3)

Similarly, the distances for the electrons at t a

and tc are
Eqn (4)

Eqn (5)

The minimum and maximum velocities are

Eqn (6) Eqn
(7)
Bunching Process:
Substitute eqn(6) in eqn(4) and eqn(7) in
eqn(5)
Eqn (8)

Eqn (9)

The necessary condition for those electrons

at ta, tb, and tc to meet at the same
distance ΔL is Eqn (10)
Bunching process
And

Eqn (11)

Consequently
Eqn (12)

Eqn (13)

Make a note that the distance in above

equation is not the one for maximum
bunching
Bunching Process:
The figure shows the distance – time plot or
applegate diagram
Bunching Process:
Since the drift region is field free, the
transit time for an electron to travel a
distance of L is given by
Eqn (14)

T0 = L/V0 is the dc transit time

Eqn (15)

Eqn (16)
Where
is the dc transit angle between cavities, N is
the number of electron transit cycles in the
drift space, and
Bunching Process:
And X is defined as the bunching
parameter of a klystron. Eqn (17)

At the bunching gap a charge

Eqn dQ 0 passing
(18)
through a time interval dt0 is given by
Where I0 is the dc current. From the
principle of conservation of charges this
same amount of charge dQ0Eqn (19)
also passes
the catcher at a later time interval dt2

Eqn (20)
current i2 is the current at the catcher gap.
Bunching Process:
Alternatively

Eqn (21)

Where ( ωt0 + θg/2 ) is the buncher cavity

departure angle and ωt2 – ( θ0 + θg/2) is the
catcher cavity arrival angle.
Differentiation of eqn(20) w.r.t t0 results in
Eqn (22)

The current arriving at the catcher

Eqn cavity
(23) is
then given as
Bunching Process:
Figure shows catcher arrival angle versus
buncher departure angle
Bunching Process:
Figure shows beam current i2(t2) as a
function of catcher arrival angle in terms of
bunching parameter X.
Bunching Process:
In terms of t2 the current is

Eqn (24)

The relationship of t2 = t0 + τ + T0 is used

and = ωt0 + ωτ + ωT0 = ωt0 + θg + θ0 .
The beam current at the catcher cavity is a
periodic waveform of period 2π/ω about dc
current. Therefore the current i2 can be
expanded in a fourier series
Eqn (25)

Where n is integer excluding

Bunching Process:
The series coefficients a0, an, bn are given
by integrals
Eqn (26)

Eqn (27)

Eqn (28)
Bunching Process:
Using trigonometric functions

Eqn (29)

Eqn (30)
 Bunching Process:
If the above series are substituted into the
integrands of equations (27) and (28), the
integrals are evaluated term by term and
the series coefficients are

Eqn (31)

where Jn(nX) is the

nth order Bessel
function of first kind
Bunching Process:
The beam current i2(t) as

Eqn (32)

The fundamental component of beam current at

the catcher cavity has a magnitude
Eqn (33)
The fundamental component If has its maximum
amplitude at X = 1.841Eqn (34)

 The optimum distance L at which the maximum

fundamental component of current occurs is
computed from Eqns 16,17,34.
Eqn (35)
Bunching Process:
Note that the distance given in eqn(13) is
approximately 15% less than distance in
eqn(35).
The discrepancy is due to approximations
considered as specified and to the fact that
the maximum fundamental component of
current will not coincide with the maximum
electron beam density along the beam
because the harmonic components exist in
the beam.
Output Power and Beam
Loading:
The maximum bunching should occur
approximately midway between the catcher grids.
The phase of the catcher gap voltage must be
maintained in such a way that the bunched
electrons, as they pass through the grids,
encounter a retarding phase.
When the bunched electron beam passes through
the retarding phase, its kinetic energy is
transferred to the field of the catcher cavity.
When the electrons emerge from the grids, they
have reduced velocity and are finally collected by
the collector.
The induced current in the catcher
cavity:
The current induced by the electron beam
in the walls of the catcher cavity is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the
microwave input voltage V1 , the
fundamental component of the induced
microwave current in the catcher is given
by

Where β0 is the beam coupling coefficient

of the catcher gap. If the buncher and
catcher cavities are identical, then β i = β0
. The fundamental component of the
Contd..
Figure shows the output equivalent circuit
Rsho - the wall resistance of the catcher
cavity.
RB - the beam loading resistance
RL - the external load resistance
Rsh - the effective shunt resistance

Figure: Output equivalent circuit

Contd..
The output power delivered to the catcher
cavity and load is

 where Rsh is the total equivalent shunt

resistance of the catcher circuit, including
the load and V2 is the fundamental
component of catcher gap voltage.
Efficiency of Klystron
The electronic efficiency of klystron is
defined as the ratio of output power to
input power.

In which the power losses to the beam

loading and cavity walls are included.

If the coupling is perfect, β0 = 1, the

maximum beam current approaches I2max =
2I0(0.582) and the voltage V2 is equal to
the V0. The maximum electronic efficiency
is about 58%.
In practice, the electronic efficiency of a
Efficiency of Klystron:
The efficiency is a function of catcher gap
transit angle θg
Figure shows maximum efficiency of an
klystron as a function of catcher gap transit
angle.
Mutual conductance of klystron:
The equivalent mutual conductance of
klystron amplifier can be defined as the
ratio of induced output current to the input
voltage.

The input voltage V1 can be expressed in

terms of bunching parameter X

It is assumed that β0 = βi therefore the

normalized conductance is
D.C. conductance of the beam
Mutual conductance of
klystron:
The mutual conductance is not constant
but decreases as bunching parameter X
increases.
 Mutual conductance of
klystron:
It can be seen from the curves that for a
signal, the normalized transconductance is
maximum.

For maximum output X=1.841, the normalized

mutual conductance is

The voltage gain of klystron amplifier is

defined as
d.c. beam resistance
Multi-cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
The typical power gain of two cavity klystron
amplifier is about 30dB. In order to achieve higher
overall gain, one way is to connect several two
cavity tubes in cascade, feeding the output of
each of the tubes to the input of next one.
Extra cavities help to modulate the electron
beam’s velocity and increase the output energy.
Hence intermediate cavities are added between
input and output cavities of a klystron amplifier.
A four cavity klystron with 4 cavities, power gains
of around 50dB can easily achieved. Since each
intermediate cavity increases the power gain by
15 to 20dB.
Multi cavity Klystron
Amplifier:
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
The intermediate cavities are kept at a
distance of the bunching parameter X of
1.8141, away from the previous cavity,
which acts as buncher cavities.
These buncher cavities pass the electron
beam and induce a higher RF voltage than
the previous cavity. Due to this velocity
modulation increases. This increasing beam
voltage V0 could be used in subsequent
cavities. Therefore more output power can
be achieved at the output cavity.
The output power delivered to the load in a
two cavity Klystron amplifier is given by
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
When two cavity klystrons are discussed we
assumed that mutual repulsion of electrons are
negligible i.e., space charge effect is neglected.
And it holds good since a small density of electrons
in the beam for low power amplifiers.
But in high power Klystron tubes the electron
density is large and forces of mutual repulsion of
electrons must be considered.
When electrons perturbate in the electron beam,
the electron density consists of dc part plus RF
perturbation caused by electron bunches.
The space charge forces with in the electron
bunches vary with size and shape of electron
beam.
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
In an infinitely wide beam the electric fields
are constrained to act only in axial
direction.
In a finite beam the electric fields are radial
as well as axial with the result that the axial
component is reduced in comparison to the
infinite beam.
With the reduced axial space charge force,
the plasma frequency is reduced and
plasma wavelength is increased.
Charge density
Let the charge density and velocity
Velocity perturbation
perturbations be sinusoidal variations both
in time and position. They are
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
From the above equations
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
The electron plasma frequency is the
frequency at which the electrons oscillate
in the electron beam. This plasma
frequency applies to a beam of infinite
diameter.
But practical beam of finite diameter are
characterized by plasma frequency less
than ωp . This lower plasma frequency is
called reduced plasma frequency and
designated by ωq .
The space charge reduction factor R is a
function of beam radius and ratio n of the
beam tunnel radius to the beam radius.
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
The total charge density and electron
velocity are given by

The total electron beam current density can

be written as
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
The instantaneous convection beam
current density at any point in the beam is
expressed as

By using law of conservation of charge , the

continuity equation is written as
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
We know that

Since
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
The beam current density and modulated
velocity is expressed as

In practical microwave tubes the ratio

ωq /ω is much smaller than unity therefore
second term is neglected in the above
equation.
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
The electrons leaving the input gap of
klystron amplifier have a velocity given at
the exit grid by

Since the electrons under the influence of

space charge forces exhibit simple
harmonic motion, the velocity at the later
time t is given by
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
Where ωp = plasma frequency, the current
density equation is given by
 Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
If the two cavities of a two-cavity klystron
amplifier are assumed to be identical and
are placed at a point where RF convention
current at the output cavity for a two cavity
Klystron

Where V1 = magnitude of input signal

voltage. Then the magnitudes of induced
current and voltage in the output cavity is
equal to
 Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
where β0 = βi is the beam coupling
coefficient
Rshl = total shunt resistance of the output
cavity in the two-cavity klystron amplifier
including the external load.
The output power delivered to the load in a
two- cavity Klystron amplifier is given by

The power gain of a two-cavity klystron

amplifier is expressed by
Where Rsh = total shunt resistance of the input cavity
 Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
The electronic efficiency of the two cavity Klystron
amplifier is

Multi cavity Klystrons with seven cavities are

commercially available, most frequently used one is four.
The four cavities are assumed to be identical and they
have same unloaded Q and beam coupling coefficient β i
= β0. The intermediate are not externally loaded, but the
input and output cavities are matched to their
transmission lines.
If V1 is the magnitude of the input cavity gap voltage,
the magnitude of RF convection current density injected
into the first intermediate cavity.
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
This gap voltage of first intermediate cavity
produces a velocity modulation on the
beam in the second intermediate cavity.
The RF convection current in the second
intermediate cavity can be written as |V1 |
replaced by |V2|

The output voltage of the second

intermediate cavity is then given by
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
This voltage produces a velocity modulation
again and is converted into an RF convection
current at the output cavity for four-cavity
Klystron

The output voltage is

The output power from the output cavity in a
four cavity Klystron amplifier
Multi- cavity Klystron
Amplifiers:
Where Rshl = total shunt resistance of the
output cavity including the external load
The multi-cavity klystrons are often
operated with their cavities stagger tuned
so as to obtain a greater bandwidth at
some reduction in gain.
 Reflex Klystrons:
If the fraction of output power is fed back to the input
cavity and if the loop gain has a magnitude of unity with a
phase shift of multiple 2π, the klystron oscillate.
The reflex klystron has been the most used source of
microwave power in laboratory applications.
A reflex klystron consists of an electron gun, a cavity with a
pair of grids and a repeller plate as shown in the following
diagram.
In this klystron, a single pair of grids does the functions of
both the buncher and the catcher grids.
The main difference between two cavity reflex klystron
amplifier and reflex klystron is that the output cavity is
omitted in reflex klystron and the repeller or reflector
electrode, placed a very short distance from the single
cavity, replaces the collector electrode.
Reflex Klystrons:
diagram
 Working:
The cathode emits electrons which are accelerated
forward by an accelerating grid with a positive
voltage on it and focused into a narrow beam.
The electrons pass through the cavity and undergo
velocity modulation, which produces electron
bunching and the beam is repelled back by a
repeller plate kept at a negative potential with
respect to the cathode.
On return, the electron beam once again enters the
same grids which act as a buncher, therby the same
pair of grids acts simultaneously as a buncher for
the forward moving electron and as a catcher for
the returning beam
Working:
The feedback necessary for electrical oscillations
is developed by reflecting the electron beam, the
velocity modulated electron beam does not
actually reach the repeller plate, but is repelled
back by the negative voltage.
The point at which the electron beam is turned
back can be varied by adjusting the repeller
voltage.
Thus the repeller voltage is so adjusted that
complete bunching of the electrons takes place
at the catcher grids, the distance between the
repeller and the cavity is chosen such that the
repeller electron bunches will reach the cavity at
Apple gate diagram:
Apple gate diagram with gap voltage for a
reflex klystron
 Velocity modulation:
The analysis of reflex klystron is similar to the
two cavity klystron amplifier. The space charge
effect on electron motion is neglected. The
electron entering the cavity gap from the
cathode at Z=0 and time t0 is assumed to
have uniform velocity.

The same electron leave the gap at Z=d and

time t1 with velocity

The retarding electric field is assumed to be constant

in the z-direction. The force equation for one electron
 Velocity modulation:
The force equation Used in z direction on

Integration on both sides

 Velocity modulation:
at t = t1 and Z = d = K2 then

on the assumption that electron leaves the electron

leaves the cavity gap at Z = d and time t1 with velocity
v(t1) and returns to the gap at Z = d and time t2
Velocity modulation:
where Is the round trip dc transit
time of the center of the
bunch of the electron
Power output and efficiency:
In order for the electron beam to generate a
maximum amount of energy to the oscillation, the
returning electron beam must cross the cavity
gap when the gap field is maximum retarding
A maximum amount of kinetic energy can be
transferred from the returning electrons to the
cavity walls.
For maximum energy transfer, the round trip
transit angle, referring to the center of the bunch
Power output and efficiency:
The current modulation of the electron beam as
it reenters the cavity from the repeller region can
determined in similar way as two cavity klystron
amplifier.
The bunching parameter XI of the reflex klystron
oscillator has a negative sign w.r.t bunching
parameter X of two cavity klystron amplifier.
The beam current injected into the cavity gap
from the repeller region flows in negative Z
direction.
Power output and efficiency:
In which θg has neglected as compared to the θ 0i .
the magnitude of fundamental component is
Power output and efficiency:
The electronic efficiency of reflex klystron is
defined as

In the factor X!J1(X!) reaches the maximum value

1.25 at X!= 2.408 and J1(X!) = 0.52. in practice the
mode n=2 has the most power output
Power output and efficiency:
Figure X!J1(X!) versus X!
Power output and efficiency:
For a given beam voltage V0 the relationship
between the repeller voltage and cycle number n
required for oscillations is found

For a given beam voltage and cycle number n or

mode number N, the center repeller voltage can
be determined in terms of central frquency
The output power can be expressed in terms of
repeller voltage Vr
Power output and efficiency:
When the frequency varies from center frequency
and the repeller voltage about the center voltage,
the power output is varied accordingly assuming
a bell shape.
Electronic Admittance:
The induced current in phasor form as
The voltage across the gap at time t 2 can also be
in phasor form

The ratio of i2 to V2 is defined as electronic

admittance of reflex klystron

The amplitude of the phasor admittance indicates

that the electronic admittance is a function of dc
beam admittance, the dc transit angle and the
is proportional
second transit to the
of electron beamsignal voltage
through the
cavity gap.
Contd..
Reflex klystron saturation factor
Contd..
The equivalent circuit of reflex klystron is shown
below. In this circuit the L and C are energy
storage elements in the cavity and Gc copper
losses of the cavity, Gb the beam loading
conductance Gl the load conductance.
The necessary condition for oscillations is the
magnitude of the negative real part of admittance
not be less than the total conductance of the
cavity circuit.
Contd..
The electronic admittance in rectangular form
The electronic admittance is in electronic form, its
phase is π/2 when θ0I is zero.
The rectangular plot of electronic admittance Y e
is spiral. Any value of θ0I for which the spiral lies
in the area to the left of the line
will yield oscillation.
 Contd..
Electronic admittance spiral for reflex klystron
TRAVELING WAVE TUBE:

Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) is the most versatile

microwave RF power amplifiers.
The main virtue of the TWT is its extremely wide
band width of operation.
Basic Structure of TWT:
Travelling Wave Tube
Basic Structure:
The basic structure of a TWT consists of a
cathode and filament heater plus an anode that
is biased positively to accelerate the electron
beam forward and to focus it into a narrow
beam.
The electrons are attracted by a positive plate
called the collector, which has given a high dc
voltage.
The length of the tube is usually many
wavelengths at the operating frequency.
Surrounding the tube are either permanent
magnets or electro-magnets that keep the
electrons tightly focused into a narrow beam.
Features:
The unique feature of the TWT is a helix or coil
that surrounds the length of the tube and the
electron beam passes through the centre or axis
of the helix.
The microwave signal to be amplified is applied to
the end of the helix near the cathode and the
output is taken from the end of the helix near the
collector.
The purpose of the helix is to provide path for RF
signal.
The propagation of the RF signal along the helix is
made approximately equal to the velocity of the
electron beam from the cathode to the collector.
Functioning:
The passage of the microwave signal down the
helix produces electric and magnetic fields that
will interact with the electron beam.
The electromagnetic field produced by the helix
causes the electrons to be speeded up and
slowed down, this produces velocity modulation
of the beam which produces density modulation.
Density modulation causes bunches of electrons
to group together one wavelength apart and
these bunch of electrons travel down the length
of the tube toward the collector.
Functioning:
The electron bunches induce voltages
into the helix which reinforce the voltage
already present there.Due to that the
strength of the electromagnetic field on
the helix increases as the wave travels
down thetube towards the collector.
At the end of the helix, the signal is
considerably amplified. Coaxial cable or
waveguide structures are used to
extract the energy from the helix.
Advantages:
TWT has extremely wide bandwidth.
Hence, it can be made to amplify signals
from UHF to hundreds of gigahertz.
Most of the TWT’s have a frequency range
of approximately 2:1 in the desired
segment of the microwave region to be
amplified.
The TWT’s can be used in both continuous
and pulsed modes of operation with power
levels up to several thousands watts.
Performance Charecteristics:
 Frequency of operation : 0.5 GHz – 95
GHz
 Power outputs: 5 mW (10 – 40 GHz –
low power TWT) 250 kW (CW) at 3 GHz
(high power TWT) 10 MW (pulsed) at 3
GHz
 Efficiency : 5 – 20 % ( 30 % with
depressed collector)
Klystron Vs TWT’s
The microwave circuit in TWT is non resonant and
the wave propagates with the same speed as the
electron beam.
The interaction of electron beam and RF field in
the TWT is continuous over the entire length of
the circuit, but the interaction in the klystron
occurs only at the gaps of a few resonant
cavities.
The wave in the TWT is a propagating wave; the
wave in the klystron is not.
In the coupled-cavity TWT there is a coupling
effect between the cavities, whereas each cavity
in the klystron operates independently
TWT’s:
A helix travelling wave tube consists of electron beam and a
slow wave structure. The electron beam is focused by a
constant magnetic field along the electron beam and slow
wave structure. This is termed as O-type travelling wave tube.
The applied signal propagates around the turns of the helix
and produces an electric field at the center of helix and
directed along the helix axis.
The axial electric field progresses with a velocity that is very
close to the velocity of light multiplied by the ratio of helix
pitch to helix circumference.
When the electrons enter the helix tube, an interaction takes
place between the moving axial electric field and the moving
electrons. On the average, the electrons transfer energy to
the wave on the helix. This interaction causes the signal wave
on the helix to become larger.
Contd…
The electrons entering the helix at zero field are
not affected by the signal wave; those electrons
entering the helix at the accelerating field are
accelerated, and those at the retarding field are
decelerated.
As the electrons travel further along the helix,
they bunch at the collector end. The bunching
shifts the phase by π/2. Each electron in the
bunch encounters a stronger retarding field.
Then the microwave energy of the electrons is
delivered by the electron bunch to the wave on
the helix. The amplification of the signal wave is
accomplished.
Slow wave Structures:
As the operating frequency is increased, both
inductance and capacitance of the resonant
circuit must be decreased in order to maintain
resonance at the operating frequency.
Since the gain bandwidth product is limited by
resonant circuit, the ordinary resonator cannot
generate a large output.
Several non resonant periodic circuits or slow
wave circuits are designed for producing large
gain over a wide bandwidth.
Slow wave Structures:
Slow wave structures are special circuits that are
used in microwave tubes to reduce the wave
velocity in a certain direction so that the electron
beam and the signal wave interact.
The phase velocity of a wave in ordinary
waveguides is greater than velocity of light in
vacuum.
In magnetrons, TWT’s, the electron beam must
be with the microwave signal.
The electron beam must be accelerated only to
velocities about fraction of velocity of light, a
slow wave structure is placed in microwave
device so that the phase velocities of microwave
Slow wave Structures:
The commonly used slow wave structure is a
helical coil with a concentric conducting cylinder.
The ratio of phase velocity Vp along the pitch to
the phase velocity along the coil
Slow wave Structures:

The helical coil may be with in a dielectric filled

cylinder. The phase velocity in the axial direction
is expressed as

If the dielectric constant is too large, the slow

wave structure may introduce considerable
losses, there by reducing efficiency
Slow wave Structures:
Figure shows ω – β (or Brillouin) diagram for a
helical slow wave structure
Slow wave Structures:
For the circuit to be a slow wave structure, it must
be the property of periodicity in the axial
direction.
In the helical slow wave structure a translation
back or forth through a distance of one pitch
length identically same structure again. Thus the
period of slow wave structure is its pitch.
Floquet’s periodicity theorem(the field of the
slow wave structure must be distributed
according to periodic boundaries)
“ the steady state solutions for the electro
magnetic fields of a single propagating mode in a
periodic structure have the property that fields in
Slow wave Structure:
Where E(x,y,z) is a periodic function of z with
period L. β0 is phase constant of average electron
velocity in slow wave structure.

Where f(x,y,z) is a periodic function of z with

period L that is the period of slow wave structure.
For periodic structure z is replaced with z- L
Slow wave Structure:
From the theory of fourier series, any function is
periodic, single-valued, finite, and continuous may
be represented
Field by a fourier
distribution function series
E(x,y,z) may be expanded
into fourier series of fundamental period L as

Are the amplitudes of n harmonics

Is the phase constant of the nth
modes where n= - ,-2,-
Slow wave Structure:

From the preceding equation it is evident that if

each spatial harmonic is itself solution of wave
equation for each value of n
the field in a periodic structure can be expanded
as an infinite series of waves, all at the same
frequency but with different phase velocities V pn
Slow wave structure:
It is important note that phase velocity V pn in the
axial direction decreases for higher values of n
and β0

the ω – β diagram for a helix with several

spatial harmonics
Slow wave Structure:
The second quadrant of ω – β indicates the
negative phase velocity that corresponds to
negative n. the electron beam moves in positive z
direction while beam velocity coincides with the
negative spatial harmonics of phase velocity. This
type of tube is called Backward wave oscillator.
The shaded areas are the forbidden regions for
propagation. This situation occurs because if the
axial phase velocity of any spatial harmonics
exceeds the velocity of light, the structure radiates
the energy
Amplification Process:
The slow-wave structure of the helix is characterized
by brillouin diagram. The phase shift per period of
the fundamental wave on structure is given by
Where β0 = ω/v0 is the phase constant of the
average beam velocity and L is the period or pitch.
Since the dc transit time of an electron is given by
The phase constant of the nth space harmonic

The axial space harmonic phase velocity is assumed

to be synchronised with the beam velocity for
possible interactions between electron beam and
electric field
Amplification Process:
In practice, the dc velocity of electrons is adjusted
to be slightly greater than the axial velocity of the
electromagnetic wave for energy transfer
When a signal voltage is coupled into the helix,
the axial electric field exerts a force on electrons
as a result of the following relationships

The electrons entering the retarding field are

decelerated and those in accelerating field are
accelerated. They begin forming a bunch
centered about those electrons that enter the
helix during the zero field
Amplification Process:
Schematic diagram of helix travelling wave tube
Amplification Process:
Simplified circuit

The dc velocity of the electrons is slightly greater

than the axial wave velocity, more electrons are in
retarding field than in the accelerating field and a
great amount of energy is transferred from the
beam to the electromagnetic field.
Amplification Process:
The microwave signal voltage is amplified by
amplified field. The bunch continues to become
more compact and a large amplification occurs at
the end of helix.
The magnet produces an axial magnetic field to
prevent the spreading of the electron beam as it
travels down the tube. An attenuator placed near
the center of helix reduces all the waves
travelling along the helix to nearly zero so that
the reflected waves from the mismatched loads
can be prevented from reaching the input and
causing the oscillation.
The bunched electrons emerging from the
 Amplification Process:
The motion of electrons in the helix travelling
wave tube can be quantitatively analyzed in
terms of the axial electric field. If the travelling
wave is propagating in the z direction, the z
component of the electric field is expressed as
where E1 is the magnitude of the electric field in
the z direction. If t=t0 at z=0, the electric field is
assumed maximum. Note that βp = ω/vp is the
axial phase constant of the microwave and vp is
the axial phase velocity of the wave.
The equation of motion of electron is given by
ssume the velocity of electron is
Amplification Process:
From the equation

For interactions between the electrons and the

electric field, the velocity of the velocity
modulated electron beam must be approximately
equal to dc electron velocity.
Amplification Process:
Hence the distance z travelled by the electrons is

It can be seen that the magnitude of velocity

fluctuation of the electron beam is directly
proportional to the magnitude of axial electric field
Convection Current:
To determine the relationship between the circuit
and electron beam quantities, the convection
current induced in the electron beam by the axial
electric field and the microwave axial field
produced by the beam must be developed.
When space charge effect is considered the
electron velocity, the charge density, the current
density, and the axial electric field will perturbate
about their dc or average values. Mathematically
these quantities are expressed as
Where γ is the propagation consta
of axial waves
 Convection Current:
The minus sign is attached to J0 so that J0 may be
a positive in the negative z direction. For a small
signal, the electron beam current density can be
written as
Where

If the axial electric field exists in the structure, it

will perturbate the electron velocity according to
the force equation

Where dz/dt is replaced by v0

Convection Current:
From the law of conservation of charge, the
continuity equation can be written as

Where has been replaced.

Convection Current:
If the magnitude of the axial electric field is
uniform in the cross sectional area of the electron
beam, the spatial ac current i will be proportional
to the dc current I0 with the same proportionality
constant for J1 and J0. therefore the convection
current of electron beam is given by

Where βe = ω / v0 is defined as phase constant of

velocity modulated electron beam. And
The above equation is called electronic equation,
it determines the convection current induced by
the axial electric field.