SOLUTIONS

Nature of Solutions

Solution – is a homogeneous mixture of two or more

substances. A solution may have one or more solutes
dissolved in a given solvent.

Solute – the substance that dissolves in the solution.

Solvent – the substance in which the solute dissolves.

Types of Solutions
Types of Solutions

Chemists also characterize solutions by their capacity to dissolve a

solute.
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a solute that
will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than it has the capacity to
dissolve. It may either be a concentrated solution or dilute solution.
A third type, a supersaturated solution, contains more solute than is
present in a saturated solution.
A substance that dissolves in another substance is said to be soluble in
that substance.
Example: salt and sugar are soluble in water

A substance that does not dissolve in another substance is said to be

insoluble in that substance.
Example: copper and mercury are insoluble in water
▪ Liquids which are completely soluble in each other are said to be
miscible. Otherwise, they are immiscible.
▪ A solution in which the solvent is water is called an aqueous solution.
Because water can dissolve many substances, it is often called as the
“universal solvent”.
▪ A substance that dissolves in water to form a solution that conducts
electric current is called an electrolyte. On the other hand, a
substance that dissolves in water to give a solution that does not
conduct electric current is a nonelectrolyte.
Example: sodium chloride solution is an electrolyte; sugar
solution is a nonelectrolyte
Gaseous Solutions

The air we breathe is an example of a gaseous solution. Air has the

properties of both nitrogen and oxygen. Trace amounts of argon and
neon are also present in air.
The molecules in a gas are far apart that more gas particles can be
added to change the composition of air. For example, when pollutants
such SO2 and NO2 are in the atmosphere, they contaminate the air we
breathe.
Liquid Solutions

Liquid solutions are the most common type of solutions. In liquid

solutions, the solvent is always a liquid. The solute may be a gas, a
liquid, or a solid. Carbonated beverages or soft drinks are solutions of
carbon dioxide and other components in water. Vinegar is acetic acid in
water. Salt dissolved in water also makes a liquid solution.
Solid Solutions

Gold or sterling silver jewelry are examples of solid solutions. The most
common solid solutions are combinations of two or more metals called
alloys.
Concentration Units

Quantitative study of a solution requires knowing its concentration, that

is, the amount of solute present in a given amount of solution.
a. Percent by mass, percent by volume
b. Mole fraction
c. Molarity
d. Molality
e. Ppm and ppb
Percent by mass, percent by volume
Percent by mass, percent by volume

Sample Problems
1. A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in 54.6 g
of water. What is the percent by mass of KCl in the solution?
2. A solution is prepared by dissolving 10 g of glucose C6H12O6 in 100 g
of water. What is the percentage by mass of glucose in the solution?
3. 15 mL of alcohol is mixed with 85 mL of water. Find the percent by
volume of alcohol in the solution.
Mole Fraction

The mole fraction of a component of a solution, say, component A, is

written XA and is defined as:
Mole Fraction

Sample Problems
1. An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl by mass.
Calculate the mole fraction of HCl in the solution.
2. A commercial bleach solution contains 3.62 mass % NaOCl (sodium
hypochlorite) in water. Calculate the mole fraction of NaOCl in the
solution.
3. A solution contains equal masses of glycerol (C3H8O3) and water .
Calculate the mole fraction of glycerol.
Molarity

Molarity (M) is defined as the number of moles of solute in 1 L of

solution; that is,
Molarity

Sample Problems
1. If you dissolve 0.500 mol of Na2CO3 (sodium carbonate) in enough
water to form 0.250 L of solution, what is the molarity of Na2CO3 in
the solution?
2. A solution with a density of 0.876 g/mL contains 5.0 g of toluene
(C7H8) and 225 g of benzene. Calculate the molarity of the solution.
3. A solution contains equal masses of glycerol (C3H8O3) and water .
Calculate the molarity of glycerol in the solution.
Molality

Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg (1000 g)

of solvent—that is,
Molality

Sample Problems
1. Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4 g of
sulfuric acid in 198 g of water. The molar mass of sulfuric acid is
98.09 g.
2. A solution is made by dissolving 4.35 g glucose (C6H12O6) in 25.0
mL of water at 25 degrees C. Calculate the molality of glucose in the
solution. Water has a density of 1.00 g/mL.
3. An aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid contains 36% HCl by mass.
Calculate the molality of HCl in the solution.
PPM and PPB

In solutions where the mass or volume percent of a component is very

low, we often switch to other units to describe solution concentration.
For example, 1 mg solute/L solution amounts to only 0.001 g/L. A
solution that is this dilute will have the same density as water,
approximately 1 g/mL; therefore, the solution concentration is 0.001 g
solute/1000 g solution, which is the same as 1 g solute/1,000,000 g
solution. We can describe the solute concentration more succinctly as 1
part per million (ppm). For a solution with only 1 µg solute/L solution,
the situation is 1x10^-6 g solute/1000 g solution, or 1.0 g solute/1x10^9
g solution. Here, the solute concentration is 1 part per billion (ppb).
PPM and PPB

Sample Problems
1. A 2.5-g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4 µg of
Zn2+.What is the concentration of Zn2+ in parts per million?
2. The maximum allowable concentration of arsenic in drinking water
in the United States is 0.010 ppm; that is, 0.010 mg of arsenic per
liter of water. What is the corresponding concentration in ppb?
Effect of Temperature on the Solubility
of Solids and Gases

Solubility is a chemical property referring to the ability for a given

substance, the solute, to dissolve in a solvent. It is measured in terms of
the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at equilibrium.
▪ In most but certainly not all cases, the solubility of a solid substance
increases with temperature.
▪ The solubility of gases is easier to predict than that of solids. All gases
become less soluble as temperature increases. That is why bubbles
are formed when water is heated. As the temperature rises, the
dissolved air molecules begin to “boil out” of the solution long before
the water itself boils.
Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of
Gases

For all practical purposes, external pressure has no influence on the

solubilities of liquids and solids, but it does greatly affect the solubility of
gases. The quantitative relationship between gas solubility and pressure is
given by Henry’s law, which states that the solubility of a gas In a liquid is
proportional to the pressure of the gas over the solution:

Here c is the solubility or concentration of the gas in the solvent (usually

expressed as molarity), P is the partial pressure of the gas over the solution,
and k is a proportionality constant known as the Henry’s law constant. The
value of this constant depends on the solute, solvent, and temperature.
Sample Problem
Effect of the Nature of Solute and
Solvent on Solubility

The principle that substances with similar intermolecular forces of

attraction dissolve in each other is usually expressed as “like dissolves
like”. Ionic and polar solutes are soluble in polar solvents while nonpolar
solutes are soluble in nonpolar solvents.

Effect of the Nature of Solute and Solvent on Solubility

Solute Polar Solvent Nonpolar solvent
Ionic Soluble Insoluble
Polar Soluble Insoluble
Nonpolar Insoluble Soluble
Seatwork
Colligative Properties

Colligative properties (or collective properties) are properties

that depend only on the number of solute particles in
solution and not on the nature of the solute particles. These
properties are bound together by a common origin—they all
depend on the number of solute particles present, regardless
of whether they are atoms, ions, or molecules. The colligative
properties are vapor-pressure lowering, boiling-point
elevation, freezing-point depression, and osmotic pressure.
 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Vapor-Pressure Reduction

If a solute is nonvolatile (that is, it does not have a measurable vapor

pressure), the vapor pressure of its solution is always less than that of
the pure solvent. Thus, the relationship between solution vapor
pressure and solvent vapor pressure depends on the concentration of
the solute in the solution. This relationship is expressed by Raoult’s law,

vapor pressure of a solvent over a solution

mole fraction of the solvent in the solution

vapor pressure of the pure solvent

 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Vapor-Pressure Reduction
Sample Problems

1. Calculate the vapor pressure of a solution made by dissolving 218 g of

glucose (molar mass 180.2 g/mol) in 460.0 mL of water at 30°C. What is
the vapor-pressure lowering? Assume the density of the solution is 1.00
g/mL. The vapor pressure of water at 30°C is 31.82 mmHg.
2. The vapor pressure of H2O at 28 deg C is 28.3 mmHg. Find the vapor
pressure of a solution containing 100.0 g of sugar, C12H22O11, in 500.0 g
of H2O at 28 deg C. The molar mass of sugar is 342 g/mol and that of
water is 18 g/mol.
3. Glycerin (C3H8O3) is a nonvolatile nonelectrolyte with a density of 1.26
g/mL at 25 deg C . Calculate the vapor pressure at 25 deg C of a solution
made by adding 50.0 mL of glycerin to 500.0 mL of water. The vapor
pressure of pure water at 25 deg C is 23.8 torr and its density is 1.00 g/mL.
 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Boiling-Point Elevation

The boiling point of a solution is the temperature at which its vapor

pressure equals the external atmospheric pressure. Because the
presence of a nonvolatile solute lowers the vapor pressure of a solution,
it must also affect the boiling point of the solution.

Boiling point elevation Boiling point of the Boiling point of the

solution pure solvent
 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Boiling-Point Elevation

The value of ΔT is proportional to the vapor-pressure lowering,

b

and so it is also proportional to the concentration (molality) of the

solution. That is,

molal boiling-point
molality of the
elevation constant
solution
 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Freezing-Point Depression

The freezing point of a solution is lower than that of a pure solvent. The
greater the number of solute particles, the lower its freezing point
because the solute interferes with the crystallization of the solvent, and
thus need to be cooled down to a lower temperature to achieve a solid.
Like the boiling point elevation, the freezing point of a solution is
directly proportional to the molal concentration of the solution, that is,

Freezing point Freezing point Freezing point

depression of the pure of the solution
solvent
 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Freezing-Point Depression

molal freezing-
molality of the
point depression
solution
constant
Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions
Sample Problems

1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 2.40 g of biphenyl, C12H10

(molar mass = 154 g/mol), in 75.0 g benzene. Find the a) boiling
point and b) freezing point of the solution.
2. Ethylene glycol (EG), CH2(OH)CH2(OH), is a common automobile
antifreeze. It is water soluble and fairly nonvolatile. Calculate the
boiling and freezing point of a solution containing 651 g of this
substance in 2505 g of water. The molar mass of ethylene glycol is
62.07 g/mol.
 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Osmotic Pressure
The osmotic pressure (π) of a solution is the pressure required to stop
osmosis.
 Colligative Properties of Nonelectrolyte Solutions

Osmotic Pressure

where M is the molarity of solution, R is the gas constant (0.0821

L·atm/K·mol), and T is the absolute temperature. The osmotic pressure,
π, is expressed in atm.
Sample Problems

1. What is the osmotic pressure at 20.0 deg C of a 0.0020 M sucrose

(C12H22O11) solution?
2. The average osmotic pressure of blood is 7.7 atm at 25 deg C. What
molarity of glucose (C6H12O6) will be isotonic with blood?
3. The average osmotic pressure of seawater is about 30.0 atm at
25°C. Calculate the molar concentration of an aqueous solution of
sucrose (C12H22O11) that is isotonic with seawater.
Determination of Molar Mass

The colligative properties of nonelectrolyte solutions provide a means

of determining the molar mass of a solute. Theoretically, any of the four
colligative properties is suitable for this purpose. Usually, boiling-point
elevation, freezing-point depression and osmotic pressure are used.
Determination of Molar Mass using Freezing-
Point Depression (Sample Problems)

A 7.85-g sample of a compound with the empirical formula C5H4 is

dissolved in 301 g of benzene. The freezing point of the solution is
1.05°C below that of pure benzene. What are the molar mass and
molecular formula of this compound?
Determination of Molar Mass using Boiling-
Point Elevation (Sample Problems)

A solution prepared from 0.30 g of an unknown nonvolatile solute and

30.0 g of CCl4 has a boiling point of 0.392 deg C higher than that of pure
CCl4. What is the molar mass of the solute?
Determination of Molar Mass using
Osmotic Pressure (Sample Problems)

1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 35.0 g of hemoglobin (Hb) in

enough water to make up 1.00 L in volume. If the osmotic pressure
of the solution is found to be 10.0 mmHg at 25°C, calculate the
molar mass of hemoglobin.
2. A sample of 2.05 g of polystyrene of uniform polymer chain length
was dissolved in enough toluene to form 0.100 L of solution. The
osmotic pressure of this solution was found to be 1.21 kPa at 25 deg
C. Calculate the molar mass of the polystyrene.
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte
Solutions
The study of colligative properties of electrolytes requires a slightly
different approach than the one used for the colligative properties of
nonelectrolytes. The reason is that electrolytes dissociate into ions in
solution, and so one unit of an electrolyte compound separates into
two or more particles when it dissolves. (Remember, it is the total
number of solute particles that determines the colligative properties of
a solution.) For example, each unit of NaCl dissociates into two ions—
Na+ and Cl-. Thus, the colligative properties of a 0.1 m NaCl solution
should be twice as great as those of a 0.1 m solution containing a
nonelectrolyte, such as sucrose. Similarly, we would expect a 0.1 m
CaCl2 solution to depress the freezing point by three times as much as
a 0.1 m sucrose solution because each CaCl2 produces three ions. To
account for this effect we define a quantity called the van’t Hoff †
factor.
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte
Solutions

Thus, i should be 1 for all nonelectrolytes. For strong electrolytes such

as NaCl and KNO3, i should be 2, and for strong electrolytes such as
Na2SO4 and CaCl2, i should be 3. Consequently, the equations for
colligative properties must be modified as
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte
Solutions
Sample Problem