ETHICS

gh!Lsh apas
Introduction
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To do philosophy is to reason about the ultimate questions of life –

questions such as these:
 Is there a God?
 Are our actions free or determined?
 Are humans completely explainable in material terms?
 How and what can we know?
 What is the nature and methodology in moral judgments?
 What principles ought we to live by?
Introduction
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Philosophy literally comes from Greek word φιλοσοφία (philosophia).

Φιλο means “to love” and, σοφία means “wisdom”

 It could mean a guiding principle. For example, when someone says, “My
philosophy in life is, ‘What is important is doing my best, not really being the
best.’”
 It could also mean reason, rationale or basis of something. For example,
“What is the philosophy behind such project or activity?”
Introduction
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 Philosophy therefore is an integrative activity of inquiry and an

exploration for the meaning of life.
 Itserves as values not only as ideals to guide the individual’s life, but
also as ends to direct the actions of all mankind.
 Itis a deeper way of thinking or understanding the things that happen
all around us or the things that we do.
 Philosophy is the science of things (or beings in a more technical
sense) in their ultimate principles and causes as known by natural
reason alone.
Branches of Philosophy
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 Metaphysics or Ontology – the philosophical study for what reality is

in the final analysis and the principles of being or the reality of things in
general.
 Epistemology – the philosophical quest on the principles of human
knowledge, its extent and limitations.
 Theodicy or Special Metaphysics – the philosophical inquiry on the
essence and existence of God, his nature and relations to man based
mainly on reason.
 Rational/Philosophical Psychology – the philosophical inquiry on living
beings and the ultimate principles of life.
Branches of Philosophy
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 Cosmology or Philosophy of Nature – the philosophical quest for a

profound understanding of the material universe.
 Social and Political Philosophy – the philosophical exploration on
knowledge of the human person on the ultimate foundation of the
state, its ideal form, and man’s place in society.
 Aesthetics or Philosophy of Art – the philosophical exploration for a
profound apprehension of knowledge of beauty , its nature and
appreciation. The philosophical study of art and of value judgments
about art, and of beauty in general.
Branches of Philosophy
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 Logic – the philosophical exploration on science and art of correct

critical thinking.
 Philosophy of the Human Person – the philosophical study of
man/human person; an attempt to understand himself/herself and
the world he/she lives in, his/her relations with others and with God.
 Ethics or Moral Philosophy – the philosophical study of moral valuation
or the philosophical analysis of the morality of human acts and the
ultimate foundation of what is good and evil.
Important Note
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“Sa larangan ng moral lahat tayo’y pantay-pantay, lahat tayo’y

nagsisikap na magpakamoral, magpakatao.”
What is Ethics?
Nature and Concept of Ethics

ETHICS
Greek
Branch of
word
Philosophy
“ethos”

Latin word
“mores”
Ethics as a Branch of Philosophy
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Ethics is a branch of Philosophy that deals with the fundamental

questions concerning a good life.
 As a branch of Philosophy, in inquires into the nature of a good life
 It
is a study of what are good and bad ends to pursue in life and what is right
and wrong to do in the conduct of life.
Ethics is the subject that attempts to provide directions for conduct.
 It
determines how one ought to live and what actions one ought to do in the
conduct of life.
Etymology of Ethics

 Ethics is derived from the Greek word “ethos” meaning customs, habits,
character.
 The Roman language expressed the same concept in the word “mores”
from which the word “morality” is derived.
 In general, they mean the traditional manners, customs, habits, or
character of a community or group, which pertain to group’s standards
of norms or group’s “system of values” which determines what is
considered “good,” “right,” or the “proper” way of living, of acting, of
doing.
Nature and Concepts of Ethics
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GENERAL ETHICS

Descriptive
MetaEthics
Ethics

Normative Ethics
Nature and Concepts of Ethics
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Descriptive Ethics
 Consists of studying and describing the morality of a people, culture, or society.
It also makes comparisons and contrasts on the different values, principles, code
of ethics, beliefs and practices of people.
Meta-Ethics
 Studies the nature and methodology of moral judgments. It asks questions like:
What do “good” and “ought” mean? Are there moral truths? How can we justify
or rationally defend beliefs about right and wrong?
Normative Ethics
 Studiesprinciples about how we ought to live. It asks questions like: What are the
basic principles of right and wrong? What makes someone a good (virtuous)
person? Is abortion right or wrong?
Key Concepts: Ethics vs. Morality
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Ethics
A code of moral standards of conduct for what is good and right as opposed to
what is bad or wrong.
 Thephilosophical study of the moral value of human conduct and of the rules
and principles that ought to govern it.
 Derived from the Greek word “ethos”, (ἔθος which means ‘character’, ‘nature,’
or ‘disposition’) deals with the question as to what human beings should live for,
or as to what could be the ideal end for man’s life.
Key Concepts: Ethics vs. Morality
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Morality
A particular system of values and principles of conduct, especially one held by
a specified person or society.
 The extent to which an action is right or wrong.
A body of standards or principles derived from a code of conduct from a
particular philosophy, religion or culture, or it can derive from a standard that a
person believes should be universal.
 Derived from the Latin term (mos or mores, which widely means as character,
behavior, morals, custom, habit or even manners) which refers to what people
live in fellowship or do in pursuit of what they consider as the ideal end or
purpose of their existence.
Ethics vs. Morality

 In other words….
Morality means the customs, the special do-s and don'ts that are shared
and widely accepted as standard in a society or community of people —
accepted as a basis of life that doesn't have to be rationally questioned.

Ethics on the other hand is the philosophical reflection upon these rules
and ways of living together, the customs and habits of individuals, groups or
mankind as such.
Norms or Standards within the Ethos or Mores of a
Community

 (1) Technical Norm or Valuation

 Refers mainly to human needs which come from bodily space-time
limitations
 Has to do with survival, health and well-being
 Because of survival and well-being, every community prescribes
certain proper ways of working and doing things. (example: right
things to eat, right way to clean the floor, proper way to file a record,
right way to plant rice, etc.)
Norms or Standards within the Ethos or Mores of a
Community

 (2) Societal Norm or Etiquette

 The need for group cohesion and for strengthening the bonds that
keep the community together.
 Examples: certain manners or attire, ways of speaking or of
conducting oneself are considered proper and fitting
 Other ways of behavior are proscribed or frowned upon because
they are unmindful or destructive of social relations.
Norms or Standards within the Ethos or Mores of a
Community

 (3) Aesthetic Norm

 Refers to typical perceptual forms, regarding color, shape, space,
movement, sound, feeling and emotion, touch and texture, taste,
scent and odor, both in the natural and in the man-made
environment, which are considered by the community as ennobling,
cathartic, heightening human’s existence, or beautiful.
Norms or Standards within the Ethos or Mores of a
Community

 (4) Ethical or Moral Norm

 Refers to some ideal vision of human, an ideal stage or perfection,
which serves as the ultimate goal and norm.
 In relation to moral norm, human action is judged to be right or
wrong, good or bad.
 Because of this ideal vision of human, a community has what is
sometimes called the “non-negotiables,” those things which the
community cherishes and considers of ultimate worth, which give
ultimate sense and direction to human existence.
Three Main Ethical Theories

 (1) Deontological (Greek deon means duty or obligation)

 Duty theories locate the basis of morality on specific, foundational principles of
duty and obligation. These principles are binding regardless of the consequences
that acting on their basis might bring.
 (2) Teleological (Greek telos means end, purpose or fulfillment)
 Morality as the attainment of human’s end, fulfillment and happiness
 (3) Consequentialist
 Theories that determine the value of an action on the grounds of a cost-benefit
analysis of its consequences. If the positive consequences outweigh the negative
ones then the action is morally proper..
Key Concepts of Ethics
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Ethical Behavior
 That which is right or good in the context of governing moral principle.
 It is values driven.
 What is considered ethical can vary across cultures.
 Ethical dilemmas arise as tests of personal ethics and values.
 People have tendencies to rationalize unethical behaviors.
Values
 Broad beliefs about what is appropriate behavior
Key Concepts of Ethics
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Moral Reasoning
Reasons for various ethical practices
 Individualism view – does a decision or behavior promotes one’s long term self-
interests.
 Moral-rightsview – does a decision or behavior maintains the fundamental rights
of all human beings.
 Utilitarian View – does a decision or behavior do the greatest good for the most
people.
 Justice view – does a decision or behavior shows fairness and impartiality.
Key Concepts of Ethics
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Moral Issue
 Itrefers to those particular situations that are often the source of considerable and
inconclusive debates.
 It is a situation that calls for moral valuation.

Moral Decision
 It
is the choice of what to act or perform in a certain situation or issue. (For instance, I
choose not to take something I did not pay for.)

Moral Judgment
 It
happens when a person is an observer who makes assessment on the actions or
behavior of someone. (For instance, a friend of mine chooses to steal from a store,
and I make assessment that it is wrong.)
Key Concepts of Ethics
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Moral Dilemma
A situation that, although offering potential benefits, is unethical.
A more complicated situation wherein one is torn between choosing one of two
goods or choosing between the lesser of two evils.
 One of the most common ethical dilemmas occurs when a company’s culture
conflicts with an employee’s personal ethics.

Moral development
A measure of independence from outside influences.
Guides to Ethical Behavior
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Sources of Authority and Morality:

Several common ways of thinking about ethics are based on the idea
that the standards of valuation are imposed by a higher authority that
commands our obedience.
 Law
 Religion
 Culture
 Self
Guides to Ethical Behavior
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Law
 It is a system of rules that are created and enforced through social or
governmental institutions to regulate behavior.
 It has been defined both as "the Science of Justice" and "the Art of
Justice".
 It is a system that regulates and ensures that individuals or a community
adhere to the will of the state.
Guides to Ethical Behavior
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Religion
 It is a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the
universe, especially when considered as the creation of a superhuman
agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances,
and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human
affairs.
 It ascribes to something divine or superhuman power, especially a
personal God or gods.
 It contains creed, teaching or doctrine that often sets high ethical
standards and provide intense motivations for ethical behavior.
Guides to Ethical Behavior
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Culture
 It is a way of life of a group of people – the behaviors, beliefs, values,
and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them,
and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one
generation to the next.
 It is an integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior.
The outlook, attitudes, values, morals goals, and customs shared by a
society.
Ethics and Culture
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Cultural relativism – suggests that there is no one right way to behave; cultural
context determines ethical behavior.
(No culture’s ethics are superior). The values and practices of the local setting determine
what is right and wrong. (When in Rome, do as the Romans do).

Moral Absolutism – maintains that certain absolute truths apply everywhere.

Universal values transcend cultures in determining what is right and wrong. (Don’t do
anything you wouldn’t do at home).
Centrality of Ethics in Human Life

 Ethics or morality refers to that dimension of human existence whereby human

confronts or finds him or herself, an ideal vision or an ideal state and goal of his/her
existence which he/she finds him/herself oriented toward.
 The ideal vision thus constitutes for him/her an exigency, a demand to action in
accord with the ideal vision and goal. By the same token, this ideal vision of human
constitutes a fundamental norm in relation to which his/her life and actions are judged
to be either right or wrong, good or bad.
The Moral Agent: Ethics of Being and Ethics of Doing

 Ethics is concerned with two questions:

 What sort of person should I become? (being and becoming)
 What sort of action should I perform to become the person I aspire to
be? (doing)
 Ethics of Being is about the interiority or character of the person
 Focuses on the patterns of actions, or the habits we acquire, the
vision we have of life, the values and convictions or beliefs we live by,
the intentions we have
The Moral Agent: Ethics of Being and Ethics of Doing

Ethics of Doing focuses on right actions

 Good intention is not enough. Interiority gets expressed in behavior. “The good tree
bears good fruit.”
 The interest of the ethics of doing is with making a decision to resolve conflicts of
moral values so that we might do the right action.
 From this perspective, moral reflection attends not only to the duties and
obligations of the person acting but also to the circumstances which make up the
moral situation.
Kohlberg’s Moral Development of the Human Person

Pre-Conventional
Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation
(It’s Okay to do it if you don’t get caught)
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist
(If it feels good do it)
Conventional
Stage 3: Good boy/Nice girl Image
(Do it for me: She/he should do it because he/she loves me)
Stage 4: Law and Order
(Do your duty: Saving a human life is more important than saving property)
Kohlberg’s Moral Development of the Human Person

Post-Conventional
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
(It is the consensus of thoughtful people: Society has a right to insure its own survival)
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle
(What if everybody did that?)
 Fundamental Moral Principles Based
on the Dignity of the Human Person
 (1) The human person is a subject
 Freedom is so fundamental to this dimension.
 The human person is called to be conscious, to act according to his conscience, in
freedom and in a responsible manner.
 A person is responsible not only for what he or she does, but also far more
profoundly for who he or she is.
 It does not mean simply freedom to choose. It means freedom to be – to accept
oneself and to become oneself.
 Morality is about our responsibility for what we do and the kind of person we
choose to become.
 Implications for medical ethics, political ethics
 Fundamental Moral Principles Based
on the Dignity of the Human Person

 (2) The human person is an embodied subject

 The denial of embodiment has distorted our understanding of human
freedom.
 In reality our freedom is embodied freedom. It is precisely through our
bodies that we are able to be free.
 What we refer as our “limitations” are in fact simply the current boundaries
of our present abilities.
 “I am my body:” unity of the soul and body vs. dualism
 Implications for work, torture, sexual ethic
 Fundamental Moral Principles Based
on the Dignity of the Human Person
 (3) As an embodied subject the human person is part of the material world
 As human persons we depend on the rest of material creation. We cannot live
without air to breathe, water to drink, food to eat. We need warmth and shelter.
 We have not only been able to appreciate the beauty of the natural world; we
have also been able to use material things to create new forms of beauty in art
and architecture, in music and literature.
 This relationship is not just one of our dependence on the rest of the material world.
Increasingly the rest of the material world is becoming dependent on us for its
survival.
 Our relationship with the rest of creation is one of interdependence.
 Implications for ecological ethics
 Fundamental Moral Principles Based
on the Dignity of the Human Person
 (4) The human person is essentially interrelational with other human
persons
 We can only develop as human persons who are embodied subjects through
relationship with other embodied human subjects.
 Personal growth and maturation involves coming to experience and accept
myself as a distinct person (recognizing my differentiation from others) and also
recognizing that other persons really are other and not just extensions of myself.
 I am able to relate to the other without losing myself or without devouring the
other.
 Sexuality is not primarily biological but relational.
 The “design concept” of marriage is not procreation but friendship.
 Fundamental Moral Principles Based
on the Dignity of the Human Person
 (5) Human persons are interdependent social beings
 The whole human family is a complex network of interdependent groupings,
whether at the level of nations, economic communities, multinational companies,
trading partnerships, political affiliations, etc.
 The socialized individual always remain in a dual relationship with society: he is
incorporated within it and yet stands against it.
 Structures, institutions and laws should not be thought of as a necessary evil we
have to endure. They are essential features of our embodiment. They are related to
the “common good.”
 The common good refers to the state of affairs which is needed in any particular
society if the individual goods of its members are to be safeguarded and promoted.
 Fundamental Moral Principles Based
on the Dignity of the Human Person

 (6) The human person is a historical being

 We are people of our time and culture.
 The human person not only exists in history but also exists as history.
 As autonomous subjects, our lives are not simply a whole series of
disconnected choices. The choices or decisions we make are the very stuff
out of which we fashion the person we choose to become.
 Our very capacity to make such choices has its own history of
development.
 Accepting our essential historicity implies being prepared to accept the
challenge of building the future.
 Fundamental Moral Principles Based
on the Dignity of the Human Person

 (7) Human persons are fundamentally equal but each person is

unique.
 The basis of equality is the gift or intelligence or beauty but the fact that we are all
members of the human species. Human persons are individuals belonging to the
species humankind.
 We are persons who, in one sense, are self-creating and, in another sense, are the
creations of our social, cultural, and familial history.
 Our originality is a very deep dimension of our being a human person. I am who
am.
 This dimension of personal uniqueness raises questions with regard to new
possibilities opening out to humankind.
 Fundamental Moral Principles Based
on the Dignity of the Human Person
 (8) The human person is called to know and worship God
 “To know and worship God” means to be open to the experience of
transcendence. This refers to our capacity to be lost in wonder before the mystery
of reality.
 It is recognizing that , although our “eye” can see something quite clearly, there is
nevertheless more to it than meets the eye.
 Reverence for life is an attitude of wonder before the ultimate mystery of life.
 The dimension of transcendence is not restricted to “religious experience.” a
person’s capacity to see “deep down things” often seems to be active in a special
way in “crisis” or ‘limit” experiences in life. Crisis experience puts the person in touch
with a deeper level of his or her being.
The Moral Agent and His/her Actions

Human act or human conduct – is an act which the human person

consciously performs, under the control of his/her will and for which he/she is
responsible.
- these are actions classified as moral or immoral.
Constituents of Moral Action
 Knowledge – refers to the faculty of the human person, his/her intellect which acquaints the
will with the types of conduct that are desirable and are therefore approved.
 Freedom - the ability to choose between alternative courses of action, of acting and not
acting, of doing this or doing that.
 Voluntariness – an act which proceeds from both knowledge and the will is a volitional or
voluntary act. A voluntary act is one in which, when everything is ready for action, the will
still has a choice to do one thing rather than another.
Identify the Ethical Dilemmas Involved in the Following
Situations:

 A manufacturer advertises a product as being better than it is.

 A lawyer suppresses evidence that tends to show that his client is guilty.
 A physician helps a dying patient who, because of constant misery, wishes to end his life sooner.
References

 Bulaong, Oscar et al. Ethics: Foundations of Moral Valuation. Manila City: Rex Bookstore, 2018.
 Gula, Richard M. Reason Informed by Faith: Foundations of Catholic Morality. New York: Paulist
Press, 1989
 Kelly, Kevin T. New Directions in Moral Theology: The Challenge of Being Human. New York:
Geoffrey Chapman, 1992.
 Reyes, Ramon Castillo. Ground and Norm of Morality: Ethics for College Students. Quezon City:
Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1989.