GENERAL GEOLOGY

GROUP II

ESCOBAR,DIANNE
NICOLE B.

KAMID,SALAHUDIN

NARVAEZ, DIANNE
PAULA M.

TENIOZO, DRAWDSEM
GABRIELLE G.
 TENIOZO,
EARTH DRAWDSEM
PROCESSES
GABRIELLE
G.
 ORIGIN
 Geological Processes are dynamic processes at
work in the earth's landforms and surfaces.
The mechanisms involved, weathering, erosion,
and plate tectonics, combine processes that
are in some respects destructive and in others
constructive.
 What is Geology? the study of the Earth and its
history.
 Geologic Processes effect every human on the
Earth all of the time but are most noticeable
when they cause loss of life or property. Such
life or property threatening processes are
called natural disasters. Among them are:
 Earthquakes, Eruptions of Volcanoes,
Tsunamis, Landslides, Subsidence, Floods,
Droughts, Hurricanes, Tornadoes, Meteorite
Impacts
 THE EARTH IN THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 All objects in the solar system orbit around the
Sun.
 The four planets closest to the Sun (Mercury,
Venus, Earth, and Mars) have high densities
because they are mostly composed of rock and are
called the Terrestrial Planets.
 The four bodies outside the orbit of Mars (Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the former
planet Pluto) have low densities because they
mostly composed of gases and are called the
Jovian Planets.
 Origin of the Solar System
 Original Solar Nebula, Condensation of the Sun
about 6 billion years ago. Process is continuing
today, although at a much slower rate.
 4.6 billion years ago, Earth was created from the
remnants of dead stars
 EARTH
SYSTEMS/SPHERES
LAYERS OF EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE
 LAYERS OF EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE

■ Earth's Atmosphere has a series of layers, each

with its own specific traits. Moving upward from
ground level, these layers are named the
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere and exosphere. The exosphere
gradually fades away into the realm of
interplanetary space.
■ The Troposphere is the lowest layer of our
atmosphere. Starting at ground level, it extends
upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles or about
33,000 feet) above sea level. We humans live in
the troposphere, and nearly all weather occurs in
this lowest layer. Most clouds appear here, mainly
because 99% of the water vapor in the
atmosphere is found in the troposphere. Air
pressure drops, and temperatures get colder, as
you climb higher in the troposphere.
■ The next layer up is called the Stratosphere.
The stratosphere extends from the top of
the troposphere to about 50 km (31 miles)
above the ground. The infamous ozone
layer is found within the stratosphere.
Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-
energy ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun,
converting the UV energy into heat. Unlike
the troposphere, the stratosphere actually
gets warmer the higher you go! That trend
of rising temperatures with altitude means
that air in the stratosphere lacks the
turbulence and updrafts of the troposphere
beneath. Commercial passenger jets fly in
the lower stratosphere, partly because this
less-turbulent layer provides a smoother
ride. The jet stream flows near the border
between the troposphere and the
stratosphere
■ Above the Stratosphere is the Mesosphere.
It extends upward to a height of about 85
km (53 miles) above our planet. Most
meteors burn up in the mesosphere. Unlike
the stratosphere, temperatures once again
grow colder as you rise up through the
mesosphere. The coldest temperatures in
Earth's atmosphere, about -90° C (-130°
F), are found near the top of this layer. The
air in the mesosphere is far too thin to
breathe; air pressure at the bottom of the
layer is well below 1% of the pressure at
sea level, and continues dropping as you go
higher.
■ The layer of very rare air above the
Mesosphere is called the Thermosphere.
High-energy X-rays and UV radiation from
the Sun are absorbed in the thermosphere,
raising its temperature to hundreds or at
times thousands of degrees. However, the
air in this layer is so thin that it would feel
freezing cold to us! In many ways, the
thermosphere is more like outer space than
a part of the atmosphere. Many satellites
actually orbit Earth within the
thermosphere! Variations in the amount of
energy coming from the Sun exert a
powerful influence on both the height of the
top of this layer and the temperature within
it. Because of this, the top of the
thermosphere can be found anywhere
between 500 and 1,000 km (311 to 621
miles) above the ground. Temperatures in
the upper thermosphere can range from
about 500° C (932° F) to 2,000° C
(3,632° F) or higher. The aurora, the
Northern Lights and Southern Lights, occur
in the thermosphere.
■ Although some experts consider the
Thermosphere to be the uppermost layer of
our atmosphere, others consider the
Exosphere to be the actual "final frontier" of
Earth's gaseous envelope. As you might
imagine, the "air" in the exosphere is very,
very, very thin, making this layer even more
space-like than the thermosphere. In fact,
air in the exosphere is constantly - though
very gradually - "leaking" out of Earth's
atmosphere into outer space. There is no
clear-cut upper boundary where the
exosphere finally fades away into space.
Different definitions place the top of the
exosphere somewhere between 100,000
km (62,000 miles) and 190,000 km
(120,000 miles) above the surface of
Earth. The latter value is about halfway to
the Moon!
■ The Ionosphere is not a distinct layer like
the others mentioned above. Instead, the
ionosphere is a series of regions in parts of
the mesosphere and thermosphere where
high-energy radiation from the Sun has
knocked electrons loose from their parent
atoms and molecules. The electrically
charged atoms and molecules that are
formed in this way are called ions, giving
the ionosphere its name and endowing this
region with some special properties
 INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF
EARTH
• The Earth has a radius of about 6371 km,
although it is about 22 km larger at equator than
at poles.
 Layers of Differing Physical Properties
• Lithosphere - about 100 km thick (up to 200 km
thick beneath continents), very brittle, easily
fractures at low temperature.
• Asthenosphere - about 250 km thick - solid rock,
but soft and flows easily (ductile).
• Mesosphere - about 2500 km thick, solid rock,
but still capable of flowing.
• Outer Core - 2250 km thick, Fe and Ni, liquid
• Inner core - 1230 km radius, Fe and Ni, solid
 SOURCES OF ENERGY
 The Earth has two basic sources of energy - that
reaching the Earth from the Sun (Solar Energy) and
that reaching the surface of the Earth the Earth
itself (Internal or Geothermal Energy).

 Solar Energy - reaches the Earth in the form of

radiant energy and makes up 99.987% of the
energy received by the Earth.
■ About 40% is immediately reflected back into
space by the atmosphere and oceans.
■ Some is converted to heat and is absorbed by the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere, but
even this eventually escapes into space.
■ Some is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis
and is stored in plants, used by other organisms, or
is stored in fossil fuels like coal and petroleum.
■ Solar Energy drives the water cycle, causing
evaporation of the oceans and circulation of the
atmosphere, which allows rain to fall on the land
and run downhill. Thus solar energy is responsible
for such natural disasters as severe weather, and
floods.
 Internal Energy - is generated within or because of
the Earth. It only amounts to about 0.013% of the
total energy reaching the Earth’s surface but is
responsible for deformational events that build
mountains and cause earthquakes, for melting in
the Earth to create magmas that result in
volcanism.
 Radioactive Decay, Some elements like Uranium,
Thorium, and Potassium have unstable isotopes
that we say are radioactive.
■ When a radioactive isotope decays to a more stable
isotope, subatomic particles like protons, neutrons,
and electrons are expelled from the radioactive
parent atom and are slowed and absorbed by
surrounding matter.
■ The energy of motion (kinetic energy) of these
particles is converted to heat by the collision of
these particles with the surrounding matter.
■ Although radioactive isotopes like 235U (Uranium),
232U, 232Th (Thorium), and 40K (potassium) are
not very abundant in the Earth, They are
sufficiently plentiful that large amounts of heat are
generated in the Earth.
 Conversion of Gravitational Energy
■ Gravity is the force of attraction between two
bodies.
■ The force of gravity acts between the Sun, Earth,
and Moon to create tidal forces, which cause the
Earth to bulge in the direction of the Moon. This
bulging is kinetic energy, which is converted to
heat in the Earth.
■ Gravity has other energy effects near the surface
of the Earth. All objects at the Earth's surface are
continually being pulled toward the center of the
Earth by the force of gravity.
■ When an object moves closer to the center of the
Earth by falling, slipping, sliding, or sinking, kinetic
energy is released.
■ Some of the heat flowing out of the Earth is heat
that has been produced by gravitational
compaction of the Earth which has caused matter
to move closer to Earth's center.
 HEAT TRANSFER
 Since much of the energy that reaches the Earth's
surface eventually is converted to heat, it is
important to understand how heat can move
through materials. Three basic modes of heat
transfer are possible
■ Conduction - atoms vibrate against each other
and these vibrations move from high temperature
areas (rapid vibrations) to low temperature areas
(slower vibrations).- Heat from Earth's interior
moves through the solid crust by this mode of
heat transfer.
■ Convection - Heat moves with the material, thus
the material must be able to move. The mantle of
the Earth appears to transfer heat by this method,
and heat is transferred in the atmosphere by this
mode (causing atmospheric circulation).
■ Radiation - Heat moves with electromagnetic
radiation (light) Heat from the Sun is transferred
by this mode, and thus radiative heat transfer is
responsible for warming the oceans and
atmosphere, and for re-radiating heat back into
space
 DIFFERENT CYCLES OF
THE EARTH
 Geologic Cycles
■ The process by which landforms are shaped by
balancing endogenic (building-up) and exogenic
(wearing down) systems
■ Interaction between hydrologic, tectonic, and rock
cycles.
 Hydrologic Cycle – (also called the Water Cycle) is
the continuous movement of water in the air, on
the surface of and below the Earth.
■ Condensation – the transformation of water vapor
to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds
and fog.
■ Deposition – also known as desublimation , Is a
thermodynamic process, a phase transition in
which gas (vapor) transforms into solid (ice)
■ Evaporation – the transformation of water from
liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground
or bodies of water into overlying atmosphere
■ Percolation – water flows horizontally through the
soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.
■ Precipitation – condensed water vapor that falls to
the earth’s surface. Most precipitation occurs as
rain, but also includes snow, hail, fog, drip,
graupel, and sleet.
■ Sublimation – the state change directly from solid
water (snow or ice) to water vapor.
■ Transpiration – the release of water vapor from
plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas
that cannot be seen.
 Biogeochemical Cycles - can be easily broken
down. “Bio-” is the biotic system, “geo-” is the
geological component, and “chemical” is the
elements which are moved through a “cycle”.
 Although the hydrologic cycle involves the
biosphere, only a small amount of the total water in
the system at any given time is in the biosphere.
Other materials, for example Carbon and Nitrogen
have a much higher proportion of the total residing
in the biosphere at any given time. Cycles that
involve the interactions between other reservoirs
and the biosphere are often considered differently
because they involve biological processes like
respiration, photosynthesis, and decomposition
(decay). These are referred to as biogeochemical
cycles.
■ A good example is the Carbon Cycle, as it involves
the cycling of Carbon between 4 major reservoirs:
■ Biosphere, where it is the major building block of
life,
■ Oceans, where it occurs as a dissolved ion in
seawater, and
■ Atmosphere, where it occurs as Carbon Dioxide
(CO2) gas.
■ The Rock Cycle involves cycling of elements
between various types of rocks, and thus mostly
involves the lithosphere.
■ But, because materials such as water and Carbon
cycle through the lithosphere, the rock cycle
overlaps with these other cycles.
■ The rock cycle involves the three types of rocks as
reservoirs (1) igneous, (2) sedimentary, and (3)
metamorphic.
■ Chemical elements can reside in each type of
rock, and geologic processes move these
elements into another type of rock.
■ The rock cycle can be divided into two main
circuits, one through continental crust, and one
through the mantle.
■ Energy for the parts of the crustal cycle near the
Earth's surface is solar and gravitational energy
(which control erosion and weathering), whereas
energy that drives processes beneath the surface
is geothermal and gravitational energy (which
control uplift, subsidence, melting, and
metamorphism).
 TENIOZO,
DRAWDSEM
WEATHERING
GABRIELLE
G.
 ORIGIN
 Weathering is the process of disintegration of
rock from physical, chemical, and biological
stresses. Weathering is influenced by
temperature and moisture (climate). As rock
disintegrates, it becomes more susceptible to
further physical, chemical, and biological
weathering due to the increase in exposed
surface area. During weathering, minerals that
were once bound in the rock structure are
released.
 Weathering can be cause by water, air, chemicals,
plants, animals, including us
 There are three types of weathering, physical,
chemical and biological.
 3 TYPES OF WEATHERING
 Physical weathering is the weakening and
subsequent disintegration of rock by physical
forces. These physical forces include temperature
fluctuation, abrasion, frost action (freezing and
thawing), and salt crystal growth.
■ Temperature fluctuation can cause expansion or
contraction of rock. When the temperature of rock
increases, the rock expands. When the
temperature of rock decreases, the rock contracts.
This process of expansion and contraction is a
physical stress and can crack or break rock.
Abrasion of rock is caused by the friction of water,
wind, or ice upon the rock. The continuous
exposure to these elements slowly breaks down
the exposed surface of the rock.
■ Frost action is the repeated cycle of ice formation
and ice melt in the pore spaces and fractures of
rocks causing disintegration of the rock. When
water in rock pores freezes, its volume increases
by about 10%. This can create a significant
amount of pressure on rocks. The magnitude and
extent of frost action is dependent on the
frequency, duration and intensity of the freezing
and thawing cycles.
 Chemical Weathering is the weakening and
subsequent disintegration of rock by chemical
reactions. These
reactions include oxidation, hydrolysis,
and carbonation. These processes either form or
destroy minerals, thus altering the nature of the
rock’s mineral composition. Temperature and,
especially, moisture are critical for chemical
weathering; chemical weathering of rock minerals
generally occurs more quickly in hot, humid
climatic regions.
■ Oxidation is the reaction of rock minerals with
oxygen, thus changing the mineral composition of
the rock. When minerals in rock oxidize, they
become less resistant to weathering. Iron, a
commonly known mineral, becomes red or rust
colored when oxidized.
■ Carbonation is the process of rock minerals
reacting with carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is
formed when water combines with carbon dioxide.
Carbonic acid dissolves or breaks down minerals
in the rock.
■ Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction caused by water.
Water changes the chemical composition and size
of minerals in rock, making them less resistant to
weathering.
■ Biological weathering is the weakening and
subsequent disintegration of rock by plants,
animals and microbes.
■ Growing plant roots can exert stress or pressure on
rock. Although the process is physical, the
pressure is exerted by a biological process (i.e.,
growing roots). Biological processes can also
produce chemical weathering, for example where
plant roots or microorganisms produce organic
acids which help to dissolve minerals.
■ Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by
altering the rock’s chemical composition, thus
making it more susceptible to weathering. One
example of microbial activity is lichen; lichen is
fungi and algae, living together in a symbiotic
relationship. Fungi release chemicals that break
down rock minerals; the minerals thus released
from rock are consumed by the algae. As this
process continues, holes and gaps continue to
develop on the rock, exposing the rock further to
physical and chemical weathering.
 EROSION
■ Erosion involves removal of solid material by a
transporting agent. Weathering Erosion is the
process by which soil and rock particles are worn
away and moved elsewhere by gravity, or by a
moving transport agent – wind, water or ice.

■ Transport refers to the processes by which the

sediment is moved along – for example, pebbles
rolled along a river-bed or seashore, sand grains
whipped up by the wind, salts carried in solution.

 How is erosion different to weathering?

■ is the breakdown of rock into fragments at the
Earth’s surface. No movement is involved in
weathering.
Gravity and Mass Wasting

Erosion & Transport by Wind

Erosion & Transport by Ice

Erosion & Transport by Water

 EARTHQUAKE
(MODE OF NARVAEZ,
OCCURRENCE DIANNE
& PAULA M.

PROSPECTING)
 EARTHQUAKE
■ also known as a quake, tremor or temblor.
■ A vibration in the surface of Earth resulting
from the sudden release of energy.
■ It could be a small shaking that could sway
hanging objects, or very large movement that
could destroy buildings and cause
catastrophic damage.
■ The breaking of rocks beneath the surface as
a result tectonic forces produces earthquake.
■ Is what happens when two blocks of the
earth suddenly slip past one another.
■ is the shaking of the surface of the Earth,
resulting from the sudden release of energy in
the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic
waves.
■ the word earthquake is used to describe any
seismic event—whether natural or caused by
humans—that generates seismic waves.
■ Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of
geological faults but also by other events
such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine
blasts, and nuclear tests.
 ORIGIN OF
EARTHQUAKE
■ Earthquakes can originate from sudden
motion along a fault, from a volcanic eruption,
bomb blasts, landslides, or anything else that
suddenly releases energy on or in Earth.
■ Most faults are in fact no longer active but
were active at some time in the geologic past.
■ Earthquake is a vibration in the surface of
Earth resulting from the sudden release of
energy.
■ Rocks and materials are said to behave in a
brittle way when they respond to built-up
tectonic pressures by cracking, breaking, or
fracturing.
■ Earthquakes represent a sudden brittle
response to built-up stress and are almost
universally activated in the upper few
kilometers of the earth.
 FAULT

■ Is a fracture on which one

body of rockslides past
another.
■ Faulting happens when the
stress acting on the fault
exceeds the frictional forces
on both sides of the fault.
■ Majority of the earthquakes in
the planets are due to
movement of existing faults.
TYPES OF FAULT
 TYPES OF FAULT

Normal faults
 form when the hanging wall
drops down. The forces that
create normal faults are pulling
the sides apart, or extensional.
Reverse faults
 form when the hanging wall
moves up. The forces creating
reverse faults are
compressional, pushing the
sides together.
Transcurrent or Strike-slip faults
 have walls that move sideways,
not up or down.
OTHER CAUSES OF AN
EARTHQUAKE

Movement of magma
underneath a volcano
Explosion of a volcano
Large landslides
Meteorite impact
Underground nuclear-
bomb test
 ANATOMY OF AN
EARTHQUAKE

Focus or Hypocenter
 The place where rock ruptures and slips.
 Energy radiates from the focus outward to the
surface.
Earthquake Epicenter
 The point at the surface directly above the focus.
Seismic Waves
 The energy released from the hypocenter of an
earthquake.
KINDS OF SEISMIC WAVES
Body waves
 Waves that travel within the interior of Earth.
Primary waves or P-waves
 Body waves in which the particles of the
material move back and forth parallel to the
direction of wave motion.
 It is a compressional wave.
 Travel the fastest.
Secondary Waves or S-Waves
 Body waves where the particles of the
material move back and forth perpendicular
to the direction of wave motion.
 They are also referred as shear waves.
Surface Waves
 Waves that travel along the Earth’s surface.
 Travel the slowest.
Rayleigh Waves
 Are surface waves that cause the
ground to ripple up and down.
Love Waves
 Are surface waves that cause the
ground to move back and forth in a
snake-like movement.
 MEASURING
EARTHQUAKE
MAGNITUDE
 The number that indicates the relative
size of energy released in an earthquake.
 It is determined from the maximum
amplitude of ground motion recorded in
the seismogram.

INTENSITY
 The amount of damage brought about by
an earthquake usually denoted as Roman
Numerals
INSTRUMENT FOR EARTHQUAKE

SEISMOGRAPH
 The instrument that detects and records
the ground motion from an earthquake.
 The record is called seismogram.
 Consists of a heavy mass suspended on a
spring and a rotating drum that records
the motion
 There are two kinds of seismographs---one
that records vertical motion while another
records horizontal motion.
RICHTER SCALE
 used to measure the magnitude of an
earthquake.
MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE
 The first intensity scale developed by Giuseppe
Mercalli in 1902.

RICHTER SCALE

MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE

 THE 13 DEADLIEST EARTHQUAKES
IN RECORD HISTORY
Place Year Deaths Estimated Magnitude

Shaanxi, China 1556 830,000

Calcutta, India 1737 300,000

Sumatra, Indonesia 2004 286,000 9.0

242,000 (could be as
T'ang Shan, China 1976 7.8
many as 800,000)

200,000 (preliminary
Port-au-Prince, Haiti 2010 7.0
estimate)

Gansu, China 1920 180,000 8.6

Messina, Italy 1908 160,000 7.5

Tokyo, Japan 1923 143,000 8.3

Beijing, China 1731 100,000

Chihli, China 1290 100,000

Naples, Italy 1693 93,000

90,000 (could be as
Wenchuan, China 2008 7.9
many as 1,000,000)

Gansu, China 1932 70,000 7.6

 OCCURRENCE OF
EARTHQUAKE
■ Most earthquakes occur along
tectonic plate boundaries, along
cracks in the lithosphere called
faults, or along the mid-oceanic
ridges but the majority of the
seismic energy released in the
world is from earthquakes
occurring along the plate
boundaries, particularly around
the Pacific Rim or the so-called
Ring of Fire where there is a
particularly intense tectonic
activity that causes Tsunamis on
a regular basis.
 ENGINEERING
CONSIDERATION
■ To Collect Sufficient Data,
Regarding The Previous
Seismic Activity In The Area.
■ To Assess The Losses, Which
Are Likely To Take Place In
Furniture Due To Earthquake
Shocks.
■ To Provide Factors Of Safety, To
Stop Or Minimize The Loss Due
To Sever Earth Shocks
 FOLLOWING ARE
PRECAUTIONS WHICH MAKES
THE BUILDING EARTHQUAKE
PROOF
■ The foundation of a building should rest
on a firm rock bed. Grillage foundations
should preferably be provided.
■ Excavation of the foundation should be
done up to the same level, throughout
the building.
■ The concrete should be laid in rich
mortar and continuously
■ Masonry should be done with cement
mortar of not less than 1:4 max.
■ Flat R.CC slab should be provided.
■ All the parts of building should be tied
firmly with each other.
■ Building should be uniform height.
■ Cantilevers, projections, parapets, domes
etc, should be provided.
■ Best materials should be used.
 KAMID,
RIVER, WIND
AND SEA SALAHUDIN
A.
 RIVER

■ A river is a natural stream of water that

flows to another water body such as a
lake, ocean or another river. Rivers can
be found on every continent but there
are at least 18 countries that don’t have
any river at all. Russia has the most
number of rivers with around 100,000
while the United States has the oldest
one which is ironically called the New
River.
■ During the life while flowing from head to
mouth, the rivers are capable of exerting
greatly modifying influence over the
topography of the region through which
they flow.
■ The geological work by river may be
broadly divided into three well-defined
phases: erosion, transport and
deposition.
 TYPES OF RIVER

■ Ephemeral Rivers
Whenever snow melts quickly or there is an
exceptionally heavy downpour, it can result in
an ephemeral river. The river’s temporary
quick flow can be found in desert areas where
flash flooding occurs on a very irregular basis.
For most of the year, these rivers’ beds
remain dry because the water table is below
the surface and therefore, base flow does not
happen.
■ Episodic Rivers
Although they are rare, episodic rivers are
formed from run-off channels and found
in areas with very dry climates. They may
have some permanent areas, and they
usually only flow fervently after very heavy
rain. In the desert, episodic rivers are very
important sources of water. They can also
be thought of as seasonal or occasional
rivers, and they are known as episodic
because they only exist after an episode
of a heavy downpour of rain.
■ Exotic Rivers
Any river that flows through a very dry region is
called an exotic river. Most commonly, exotic
rivers flow through the desert and are found in
places such as Saudi Arabia and the countries
that surround it. The Tigris and Euphrates
rivers are perfect examples of exotic rivers, and
they flow from the Persian Gulf into northern
Iraq. Essentially, a river is called exotic
because it stands out on the landscape, so a
river that sits in the middle of an otherwise dry,
barren region such as a desert is always called
an exotic river.
■ Intermittent Rivers
These are rivers that have a semi-permanent
nature and are known because of their
seasonal flow. During wet periods when
runoff is related to both heavy rain or
a temporary rise of the water table, the rivers
will flow fully. In the summertime, which is
considered a dry period, the river bed may
be dry because of a falling water table and
reduced rainfall.
■ Mature Rivers
A mature river is not very steep and
has a slow flow when compared to
youthful rivers. Youthful rivers have
several tributaries feeding into it, and
they have less of a sediment deposit
than youthful rivers. Examples include
the River Thames, the St. Lawrence
River, an the Ohio River.
■ Old Rivers
Old rivers have a low gradient and they depend on
floodplains. The Nile, Euphrates, and Ganges rivers
are perfect examples of old rivers.

■ Periodic Rivers
Periodic rivers have dry spells throughout the year,
especially if they are located in very dry climates
where the precipitation is less frequent than the
amount of evaporation. Also called nonperennial
rivers, they usually flow best right after a heavy rain.
■ Permanent Rivers
Permanent rivers are those which have water all
year around. These are also called perennial
rivers, and the water comes mostly from
groundwater. Also contributing to the water flow is
surface water runoff. The only time these rivers do
not have water is during periods of extreme
drought, which is seldom.

■ Youthful Rivers
With a steep gradient and only a few tributaries,
youthful rivers flow swiftly and quickly. Examples
include the U.S. rivers of Trinity and Brazos and
the Ebro River in Spain.
 RIVER FLOW

1. Ephemeral Rivers:
■ Ephemeral rivers are characterized by the temporary
quick flow as a result of exceptionally heavy
downpours or rapid melting of snow. The bed of
these rivers remains dry for most of the year since
water table is far below the surface and the base
flow does not occur.
2. Intermittent Rivers:
■ Intermittent rivers are of semi-permanent nature.
They are characterized by seasonal flow. Such rivers
flow during wet periods when runoff is related to
both quick flow from the heavy rain and/or base
flow from a temporary rise of water table to the level
of the river bed.
3. Permanent Rivers:
■ Permanent rivers are characterized by continuous
flow since water table is always at the level of the
river channel. Such rivers have a constant base flow
at all times. Besides, they are supplemented by
quick flow as a result of heavy rainstorms.
■ However, the majority of rivers represent a
combination of two or three types of flow along
some parts of their course.
 DEFINITION OF WIND

■ Air in motion is called Wind. Wind is one of

the three major agents of change on the
surface of the earth, other two being river and
glaciers.
■ Wind act as agent of erosion, as a carrier fir
transporting particles and grains so eroded
from one place and also for depositing huge
quantities of such wind blown material at
different places. There are three modes of
activities: erosion, transportation and
deposition by wind.
 WIND EROSION
■ Wind can be effective agent of erosion
anywhere that it is strong enough to act.
Wind can erode by deflation and
abrasion. Deflation is the lowering of the
land surface due to removal of fine-
grained particles by the wind. Deflation
concentrates the coarser grained
particles at the surface, eventually
resulting in a surface composed only of
the coarser grained fragments that
cannot be transported by the wind. Such
a surface is called desert pavement.
TRANSPORTATION BY WIND
 The total sediment load carried by a
wind can be divided into two parts.
a) Bed load
b) Suspended load
The larger and heavier particles such as
sands or gravels, which are moved by
the winds but not lifted more than 30
to 60 cm of the earth surface
constitute the bed load. Whereas the
finer clay or dust particles which are
lifted by the moving winds by a
distance of hundreds of meters above
the earths surface constitute the
suspended load.
 WIND DEPOSITS
■ Wind can deposit sediment when its velocity
decreases to the point where the particles can
no longer be transported. This can happen
when topographic barriers slow the wind
velocity on the downwind side of the barrier. As
the air moves over the top of the barrier,
streamlines converge and the velocity
increases. After passing over the barrier, the
streamlines diverge and the velocity decreases.
As the velocity decreases, some of the
sediment in suspension can no longer be held
in suspension, and thus drops out to form a
deposit. Topographic barriers can be such
things as rocks, vegetation, and human made
structures that protrude above the land
surface.
 FEATURES OF WIND
DEPOSITION

■ The sediments get dropped and

deposited forming what are known as
Aeolian deposits. There are two types
of Aeolian deposits;
a) Sand dunes
b) Loess

SAND DUNES LOESS

■ Sand dunes are huge heaps of
sand formed by the natural
deposition of wind blown sand
sometimes of characteristics and
recognizable shape. Such
deposits are often found to
migrate from one place to
another due to change in the
direction and velocity of wind.
■ The active dunes can be divided
into three types:
a) Barchans or Crescent shaped
dunes
b) Transverse dunes
c) Longitudinal dunes
Loess: The finest particles of dust
travelling in suspension with the
wind are transported to a
considerable distance. When
dropped down under favourable
conditions these have been
found to accumulate in the
different constituents the form of
paper-thin laminae, which have
aggregated together to form a
massive deposit known as Loess.
 SEA
■ A sea is an extensively developed continuous
body of salt water .
■ Average depth of sea is generally less than four
Km.
Examples – Arabian sea ,Baltic sea, Mediterranean
sea , Red sea
■ Deep seas ( average depth greater than 4 km )
having extensive areas & gigantic
underwater features are called Oceans.
Examples – Pacific ocean , Atlantic Ocean ,Indian
ocean , Arctic ocean , Antarctic ocean
■ Oceanography - Branch of geology deals with
study of oceans ( origin & development of
oceans )
■ It is well known that about 71 % of the surface
of the earth is covered by the oceans and seas.
■ The greatest known depth in the ocean is 11022
meters at the Mariana Trench in the pacific.
■ The oceans and seas cover an area of about
361 million square kilometer out of 510 million
square kilometer of the surface of the entire
globe.
■ Sea shore – Land area adjoining to sea that
is under constant attack of the marine
waters.
Sea water normally does not cross the land
area beyond the sea shore. That
demarcation is called Shore line.
On the basis of available bathymetric maps, the
ocean is divided into definite regions as
indicated
below:
1. Continental shelf
2. Continental slope
3. Abyssal plain
4. Submarine canyons
■ Continental shelf – Gently sloping land that
remain partly submerged under sea water. The
slope in a continental shelf is of the order of 1
in 1000 or less
■ Continental slope – Slope starting from the
farthest end of the continental shelf and
continues up to the sea floor . The gradient
varies between 1 in 4 to 1 in 6.
■ Abyssal plain – each ocean is normally
characterized with an abyssal plain. It has a
gradient of 1 in 1000
■ Submarine canyons – These are deep narrow
walled v shaped structures found on slopes of
many continental shelves.
In addition to the major features , there may be
continental rise , oceanic rise and mid oceanic
ridges.
■ Continental rise – slightly elevated region
located within a continental slope.
■ Oceanic rise – elevated region within the
ocean floor
■ Oceanic ridges – Continuous & extremely
developed submarine mountain like structure.
 Geological work of sea
■ Geological work performed by marine waters is
due to regular & irregular disturbances
taking place in the surface layers of the water
body. And they are called as waves and
Currents.
Waves - Undulatory disturbances on the surface of
the seawater due to strong rushing winds,
earthquake, attraction of seawater by the sun
and the moon, and other similar reasons.
■ During the propagation of a wave , each water
drop is disturbed from its original place of rest
& forced to acquire a motion in a circular ,
ellipsoidal, irregular orbit before coming to rest
again.

WAVE DIAGRAM
Two principal types of sea waves distinguished
on the basis of shape of orbit are:
1. Oscillatory waves
2. Translatory waves
■ Oscillatory waves -These are characteristics
of deeper portions of the sea .In such waves,
each particle moves in a circular orbit.
In shallow depths, these particles find it
impossible to describe a perfectly circular
motion.
Consequently an oscillatory wave rushing
towards the shore breaks at the crest region,
giving rise to the so well known surfs.
■ Translatory Waves: These are typically of
shallower depths in the sea and abound
along the seashore. They are commonly
produced after the oscillatory waves break
and rush forward.
Currents
These are layers or strips of seawater
that are actually pushed forward in
any particular direction. Two types are
more important in the geological work
of sea:
a) Littoral currents: These are bodies of
seawater of considerable volume
moving along and parallel to the
shore.
(b) Rip currents: These are bodies of
seawater moving backwards to sea
after having reached and struck the
seashore. They often move below the
surface of the sea and reach varying
distance up to the middle of the sea.

RIP CURRENTS
 Marine erosion
■ Hydraulic action: This is the
process of erosion by water
involving breaking, loosening,
and plucking out of loose,
disjointed blocks of rocks their
original places by the strong
forces created by the impact of
sea waves and currents
■ Marine abrasion: This involves
the rubbing and grinding action
of seawater on the rocks of the
shore with the help of sand
particles and other small
fragments that are hurled up
again and again against these
rocks.
■ Corrosion: It is the solvent action
of seawater where the shore
rocks is of a vulnerable chemical
composition.
 Features of marine erosion
■ Sea Cliffs
When the sea erodes an area of high ground to
create a vertical face of rock or other material a
cliff is formed. The sea creates a ‘notch’ at the
base of the cliff causing the cliff to eventually
collapse.
If there are areas of soft and hard rock along the
coastline the sea erodes the softer rock more
quickly than the harder rock. This creates a
wide inlet known as a bay. The harder rock is
less affected by the erosion of the sea and
remains as a headland.
Wave cut terraces
This is an area of relatively flat rock at the base of
the cliff which has been created by the
retreating shoreline.

HEADLAND AND WAVE CUT PLATFORM

BAY AND SEA CLIFF
 Marine deposition
■ Seas are the most important and extensive
sedimentation basins.
They are classified into two groups
1. Shallow water deposits
2. Deep water deposits
Shallow water deposits
■ Marine deposits in the neritic zone of the sea
which extends from low tide limit to continental
shelf
■ Materials of deposits are from land and shore
rocks
Common examples of neritic deposits are
1. Beaches
2. Spits and bars
3. Tombolas
■ Deep water deposits
■ These deposits consists of
mostly of mud and oozes , they
are also called as pelagic
deposits.
■ Oozes that form bulk deposits
consisting of small organisms –
planktons
■ Dead and decay of these
organisms & plants results
in huge deposits that forms ridge
like formations creating a great
risk for ships and boats
■ These deposits are called reefs
Coral reefs
■ These are ridge like marine
deposits
■ Corals – a type of calcium
secreting organisms
 GROUND
WATER
ESCOBAR,
& DIANNE
IMPORTANCE NICOLE B.
IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
 GROUND WATER
• Also called subsurface water.
Ground water is water that
occurs below the surface of the
earth.

• Ground water hydrology- science

of the occurence , distribution
and movement of underground
water
• Ground water is hidden resouce.
It is an important source of water
supply throughout the world. It
use in irrigaition industries, urban
and rural home
 ORIGIN

• Part of hydrologic cycle. Waters enter

ground water reservoir from the ground
surface or form bodies of surface water
then it return to the surface by action of
natural flow, plants or man.
• Ground water originates as surface water.
Principal source of natural recharge are
precipitation, stream flow, lakes and
reservoirs or aquifers. Other artificial
recharge occurs from excess irrigation,
and seepage from canal.
• Ground water discharge when emerges
from underground. Occurs as flow into
surface water and evaporation to the
athmosphere.
 OCCURENCE
a) Aquifers. Permeable geologic formation
that permits water to move through them
under ordinary field conditon. Can be
confine and unconfined Aquifers
b) Aquitards. Partly permeable and only
seepage is possible.
c) Acquiclude. Impermeable formation
incapable of transmitting water.
d) Aquifuge. Impermeable formation neither
containing nor transmitting water
e) Voids,interstices,pores, or pore spaces.
Portion of rock or soil not occupied by solid
minerals can act as groundwater conduits.
Created by geologic process and found in
sedemintary and igneous rock.
f) Secondary interstices. Develep after the
rock was formed
g) Capilary interstices. Sufficiently small to
hold water within them
 MOVEMENT
• Constant in motion. Waters generally moves
slower than it woud move in the stream for it
must pass through intricate passageways
between free spaces in the rock.
• Can move downward and upward.
Downward due to the pull of gravity and
upward due from higher pressure to lower
pressure area.

• The rate of groundwater flow depends on

the porosity and permeability of the rock.
a) Porosity is the percentage of the volume of
the rock that is open space. It determines
the amount of water that a rock can contain.
In sedementary rock, porosity depends on
the size, shape, degree of sorting of grains
while in igneous and metamorphic rock,
porosity is low because mineral intergrow
which lead to little free space
b) Permeability is the measure the degree and
size of interconnection of pore spaces. The
size of pores should be sufficiently large to
make the rock permeable
 IMPORTANCE OF
GEOLOGY IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
• Geology provides systematic knowledge of
contruction materials, their structures and
properties. Knowledge about nature of rocks
is necessary in tunneling,road costruction.
Knowledge about groundwater is necessary in
excavation works, water supply and irrigation.
If the geological features is known , the
stability of structure is greatly increase
• Geology gives knowledge about
Erosion,Transportation and Deposition by
surface water. It helps in soil conservation,
river control,coastal and harbour works .
• Pre- geological survey of the area reduces the
cost of engineering works and Geological
maps and section helps in planning
engineering projects. Geology provides
necessary information about the site
construction materials used in construction of
building, dams, tunnels,tank,and reservoir.
Geological information is most important in
planning, design and construction stage of an
engineering project
 REFERENCES

http://www.edu.pe.ca/southernkings/proc
esses.htm

http://earthsci.org/processes/pro.html#Int
roduction%20Earth%20System%20Science

https://ritholtz.com/2014/02/hydrologic-
cycle/

https://scied.ucar.edu/atmosphere-layers

https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/ks3/gsl/educa
tion/resources/rockcycle/page3462.html