Physics of Corona and Gap

Discharges
AC and DC Transmission Line
Corona Effects
UV Inspection User’s Group Meeting
February 11-13, 2004
ORLANDO, Florida, USA
By
Dr. P. Sarma Maruvada
Notas en español agregadas por Ing. Ariel Lichtig
exclusivamente para curso teoría de Campos-FIUBA
 Introduction
• Electrical Design, Operation & Maintenance of HV
Transmission Lines Requires Consideration of:
- Air Insulation
- Corona
- Insulators

• All Three Aspects Require Knowledge of Electrical

Discharges in Air, Which May Comprise:
- Partial Breakdown (Corona)
- Complete Breakdown (Gap Discharges)
Corona & Gap Discharges
• Corona is an electrical discharge (i.e. partial
breakdown of air insulation) occurring in the high
electric field region, generally in the vicinity of
conducting surfaces, but sometimes also near
insulating surfaces, due to ionization processes in air.
Resulta de procesos de avalanchas de electrones bajo
condiciones de campo no uniforme que produce que
la avalancha cese antes de llegar a tierra.

• Complete electrical breakdown of air insulation

between two electrodes separated by a very small gap
is known as a micro-gap discharge or simply as Gap
Discharge.
Basic Ionization Processes
• Ionization and excitation by electron impact
A: molécula neutra A*: excitada e inestable
A + e  A* + e (excitation)
A*  A + hfp (photo-emission)
A + e  A+ + e + e (ionization, si E es >,
e no sólo sube de órbita sino que se separa)
• Photo excitation & ionization
A + hfp  A* (photo-excitation)
A + hfp A+ + e (photo-ionization,
con más
energía)
Basic Ionization Processes
• Electron attachment
A+e A -

• Recombination
A+ + B-  A + B + hfp (radiative
recombination, only with electrons)

The energy of photons, or the frequency of

light, depends on the difference in the orbital
energies of the electron

El nitrógeno no tiene afinidad con electrones

Discharge in Uniform Fields
• Field intensified ionization & electron avalanche
+ Ө: iones, más lentos - : electrones libres

electric field
Discharge in Uniform Fields
• Discharge development & breakdown
Los iones positivos golpean el cátodo y liberan más electrones. Si hay
suficiente campo, el proceso se autosostiene

Cathode
HV

A i
Anode
Breakdown and Corona
• Excitation of molecules and photon emission
occur simultaneously with ionization.
• Secondary ionization processes, due to impact
of ions or photons, play a crucial role in
breakdown.
• In non-uniform fields, such as in a conductor-
plane gap, only partial breakdown or corona
occurs (al disminuir el campo).
Modes of Corona in Air
• Negative DC Corona
Modes:
Se crea una carga espacial
que cambia la distribución
de campo.
- Trichel Pulse
- Negative Glow
- Negative streamer
Depende se los
constituyentes (N2,
O2), generación de
fotones, carga
espacial.
 Modes of Corona in Air: Visual
Appearance of Negative DC Modes
Para punta de d=0,8 cm sobre esfera de D=7cm, gap=19 cm, exposición ¼ segundo

Trichel
pulse

Glow

Streamer
Modes of Corona in Air
• Positive DC Corona
Modes:

- Onset Streamer (el

más importante)
- Positive Glow
- Breakdown Streamer
Modes of Corona in Air: Visual
Appearance of Positive DC Modes
Para punta de d=0,8 cm sobre esfera de D=7cm, gap=19 cm, exposición ¼ segundo

Onset streamer Glow

 Modes of Corona in Air: AC Modes
Escalas: 50 microA/div - 1 ms/div
Se observan varios modos de corona durante cada ciclo al cambiar
el campo continuamente en amplitud y polaridad

Glow

Breakdown Glow
Gap Discharges in Air

Gap Discharges may Occur:

• Between metallic hardware parts of
transmission and distribution lines;
• Between metallic and insulating surfaces;
• On the surface of polluted insulators
Gap Discharges in Air
General Mechanism

Z
1
Divisor

U capacitivo

Z2 Ug Gap
Gap Discharges in Air
Typical Current Pulse Produced

I cr
Current

Time
Tr
ns ó μs
Td
Light Emission from Discharges
• Excitation: A + e  A* + e
• Photo-emission: A*  A + hfp
with hfp = (E2 – E1)
where E2 is the energy of the excited state and E1 is the
energy of the ground state to which the molecule
returns.
• Light spectrum emitted in air is mainly that of
molecular nitrogen.
• Excitation potentials of N2 = 6.3 eV and of
O2 = 7.9 eV
La mayoría de los fotones está producida por N2
Diagram of the Electronic and Vibrational
Energy Levels of the Nitrogen Molecule

Distintos tipos de
fotón según el
salto de energía
Light Emission from Discharges
• The frequency band of light emitted is in the
UV range, with the stronger emissions having
wavelengths in the range of 300 nm to 500 nm
and the weaker emissions in the range of 80
nm to 200 nm.

• The excitation coefficient (i.e. number of

molecules excited by an electron drifting 1 cm
in the field direction) depends on the
composition of air and is a function of E/p
(cociente campo eléctrico/presión)
Light Emission from Discharges
• Presence of any trace gases such as argon,
carbon dioxide etc., can change the light
spectrum emitted by discharges in air.

• Spectroscopic data in air suggest that sparks

(breakdown) produce more intense light than
streamers (corona).
Photoabsorption
• Photons emitted during the avalanche
development in air are absorbed:
a) partly by other gas molecules;
b) partly by the negative oxygen molecules
in the gas, leading to photo-detachment;
O2- + hfp  O2 + e
• Other mechanisms leading to the loss of
photons are:
photoionization, step ionization, dissociation
and dissociative ionization
Photoabsorption
• Overall photoabsorption may be characterized
by I (intensidad de fotones): I  I0 e   x
where μ is the absorption coefficient.
Typical values of μ at atmospheric pressure are:
For N2, μ = 0.3 cm-1 ,
O2, μ = 30 cm-1 ,
Air, μ = 5 cm -1

A menor μ, se propaga mayor distancia

The presence of moisture in air reduces μ by
about 25%.
Radiation from a Corona Discharge
Radiation from Sun
Corona Onset Gradient (en kV pico/cm)
 K 
Ec  m E0  1  
  rc 

• E0 and K are empirical constants (for positive dc,

E0=33.7 & K=0.24, for negative dc & ac, E0 =30.0
kV/cm & K = 0.30)
•  = (273+t0).p/(273+t)p0 is the relative air density; t is
the temperature and p the pressure of ambient air and
t0 and p0 are reference values; (t0 = 25 C and p0 = 760
mm)
• rc is the conductor radius in cm
• m conductor surface irregularity factor, depende de la
rugosidad superficial del conductor
Corona Effects on AC and DC
Transmission Lines
For both ac and dc lines:
• Corona (power) Loss (CL)
• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) (Includes
RI, TVI, etc.,)
• Audible Noise (AN)
• Ozone, NOx etc.
For dc lines:
• Space Charge Effects
 AC Space Charges and Corona Loss
- - - -
- -
- - - - - -
- -
- - - ++ + + -
- +++ - - + ++ + -
- - - + ++ - U
- - -
- - - - - Icor
- - - -
- -
(b)
(a) Ic
e f g
t
+ a b c d
+ +
+
+ + + +
++ ++ + + ++
++ ++ + + -
+ + -- +
+ ++ + ++
+ ++ + +++ + +
+
+ +
+
(c) Icorona es capacitiva, por
(d) desplazamiento de la
+ + + --- carga espacial.
- - - - -- -
- -
+ --- +
- - - - - - - - - - --
+ - -- - - + -- - -- -- -
- - - - - - - - -
+ --- + - - --- - -
-- - - - -
+ + + -----

(e) (f)
 Main Types of DC Transmission
Lines
AC System AC System

• Unipolar Lines
Metallic return

( Optional)

AC System AC System

• Bipolar Lines
Physical Description of Unipolar
Corona
• Unipolar ions created near the conductor drift
towards the ground, filling the entire space
Physical Description of Bipolar
Corona
• Ions of both polarities fill the space, creating
two unipolar regions and a bipolar region

Bipolar
Region

Negative Positive
Region Region
 Generation of RI
 Corona current pulse
trains are injected
DC Positive
into conductors
time
Pulsos aleatoriamente

DC Negative
 The high-frequency
current components
Pulsos menores time
propagate along the
AC T c-

T c+
conductors and
T c+

Ambos tipos
time produce RI near the
transmission line.
 Corona & Gap Discharge Current
Pulse Characteristics
• Both positive and
negative corona,
as well as gap
discharge, current
I cr
pulses have a fast- 0.9 I cr
rising front (1 a 50
Current

ns) and a slowly

decaying tail (50 a 0.1 I cr

200 ns) as shown Tr Time

Td
Corona Current Pulse Characteristics

Type of Pulse Amplitude Rise-time Duration Repetition

(mA) (ns) (ns) Rate
(pulses/s)

Positive Corona 10 – 50 50 250 103 – 5.103

Negative Corona 1 – 10 10 100 104 - 105

Gap Discharge 500 - 2000 1 5 102 – 5.103

 Corona Current Pulse Characteristics
• Frequency Spectra Positive
of Corona and Gap 110 Gap

Discharge Pulses 100

Negative
90
F ( ) , dB
80

70

60

50
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
Frequency, MHz.
 RI Characteristics of AC Lines
• RI from transmission lines is generally defined in
terms of three characteristics:
1. Frequency Spectrum
70

60

50
RI, dB ( µ V/ m ) QP

40

30

20

10

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 10 20 30

Frequency, MHz
RI Characteristics of AC Lines
2. Lateral Profile (proporcional a 1/D)
70

60
RI, dB ( µ V/ m ) QP

50

40

30

20

10

0
- 100 - 75 - 50 - 25 0 25 50 75 100
Distance, m
RI Characteristics of AC Lines
3. Statistical Distribution
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0

Percentage Time Above Abscissa

10.0

20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
95.0
98.0
99.0

99.8
99.9
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
RI, dB ( µ V /m ) QP
 RI Characteristics of DC Lines
Lateral Profile
70

60

El positivo
contribuye mucho RI, dB ( µ V/ m ) QP
50

más a la
radiointerferencia. 40

Producida por las

descargas tipo 30

streamer.
20

10

0
- 100 - 75 - 50 - 25 0 25 50 75 100
Distance, m
RI Characteristics of DC Lines
Statistical Distribution
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0

Percentage Time Above Abscissa

20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
95.0
98.0
99.0

99.8
99.9
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
RI, dB ( µ V /m ) QP
Audible Noise Generation and Propagation
2

1
Generated Corona
Pressure, Pa.

0
Acoustic Pulse
-1

-2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Time, µs.

x
- 1 x 2
O

R r • AN Propagation
P
 AN Characteristics of AC Lines
• Audible noise from AC lines is described, similar
to RI, in terms of frequency spectrum (figure
below), lateral profile and statistical distribution
Sound Pressure Level, dB above 20 µ PA

60

50

40

30

31 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000

Frequency, Hz
 Corona-generated Hum Noise
• Oscillatory movement of the ionic space charge
creates hum noise at twice power frequency;
Figure shows lateral profile of hum noise
Sound Pressure Level, dB above 20 µ PA

70

60

50

40

0 10 20 30 40 50
Lateral Distance From Center Phase, m.
 AN Characteristics of DC Lines
• Lateral profile & Statistical distribution are
similar to those for RI;
Frequency spectrum is given below
Sound Pressure Level, dB above 20 µ PA

60

50

40

30

31 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 16000

Frequency, Hz
DC Electric Field & Space Charge
Profiles
25 Negative Positive Pole
Pole
- +

100 Computed Electric Field

20
90
Measured Electric
j g (nA /m )
2 Field
80
E g (kV / m)

15
70

60
Computed
10 50
Current Density
40

30
5 Measured
20 Current Density
10

0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from Centre of Line, m
Corona Effects Design Criteria
• Corona Loss
- Economic Choice of Conductor Bundle

B
Total Cost

dc1 por pérdidas

dm dc2 por radiointerferencia
Conductor Diameter, d
Corona Effects Design Criteria (at 1 MHz)
• Radio Interference
Nominal Interference
USA Phase-to- Field Strength
Phase Voltage (dB above
RI from power (kV) 1 μV/m)
systems is governed
Below 70 43
by the FCC Rules 70 – 200 49
200 – 300 53
300 – 400 56
Canada 400 – 600 60
Above 600 63
Design Limits
Corona Effects Design Criteria
• Audible Noise
USA
 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
published guidelines for AN in general.
 However, each state is responsible to legislate
noise regulations and these regulations may
vary widely from state to state.
 The EPA document recommends that the day-
night average sound level, Ldn, be limited to
55 dB(A) outdoors and 45 dB(A) indoors.
DC Fields & Ions Design Criteria
• Design criteria for electric fields and ion
currents under DC lines are established on the
basis of human perception studies
• Based on such studies, the following design
limits have been proposed:
E = 25 kV/m (en ca 10 kV/m)
j = 100 nA/m2 (corriente iónica)