Introduction

Stress:
When some external system of forces act on a body, the internal forces are
set up at various sections of the body, which resist the external forces.
This internal forces per unit area at any section of body is known as stress.

P' P

The internal forces at any cross-section with in the length of he member is

determined by passing a section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of
the member

P
P'
 σ = P ' /A
P'
• Shear Stress:
When a body is subjected to two equal & opposite forces, as a result of
which the body tends to shear off the section, the stress induced is called
Shear Stress.

P
P'

Aθ
A0 F

P
P'
V
 Uniaxial Stress system
(Stress due to axial loading)
Prismatic member is subjected to an axial load P as shown in Fig. 1

P
P'

Figure No. 1
The internal forces at any cross-section with in the length of he member
is determined by passing a section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of the member and set it to equilibrium as shown in Fig. 2.

P
P'

Figure No. 2
The internal force N at the cross-section of intrest is equal in magnitude
to the applied load P. The stress also acts normal to the cut section as
shown in Fig. 3 and is equal to  
P
A

σ = P/A
P

Figure No. 3
Where
σ = Normal stress P = Axial force
A = Area of cross-section perpendicular to longitudinal axis
However there is no shear stress. Now if we consider a section which is
inclined at an angle θ w.r.t. horizontal or longitudinal axis (shown in
Fig. 4).

P
P'

Figure No. 4
Then the force P is decomposed into components N and V. (shown in
Fig. 5)

Aθ
A0 N

P
P'
V

Figure No. 5

The force, N leads to system of normal stresses (σn) and force V leads
to shear stresses () as shown in Fig. 6
 σ

θ
P' 
Figure No. 6
Following expressions are obtained by applying the equation of
equilibrium along n and t axis as shown in Fig. 7.

t-axis
n-axis
N

P θ
θ
θ t-axis

n-axis
Figure No. 7
Fn  0

P cos   N  (1)

N   N . A  (2)

as

A
A'  ( See Fig . 8)
cos 
 θ

A A'

Figure No. 8

So substituting value of A' in (2).

 A
N N.  (3)
cos 

Equating (1) & (3)

A
P cos    N .
cos 

P
 N  . cos 2   ( 4)
A

P
Let  x 
A

Therefore

 N   x cos 2   (5)
The above formulae may also be expressed in terms of double angles.

1  cos 2
cos  
2

2
 N   x (1  cos 2 ) / 2  (6 )
 Ft  0
P sin   V  (7 )
A
V   . A'   .
cos 
A
V  (8 )
cos 
equation (7) & (8)
A
P sin  
cos 

P
  . sin  cos   (9 )
A
   x sin  cos   (10 )
2 sin  cos   sin 2
   x (sin 2 ) / 2  (11 )
Graphical representation of these is shown in figure (9).

θ
Figure No. 9
 θ 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
σ 1 ½ 0 ½ 1 ½ 0 ½ 1
 0 ½ 0 ½ 0 ½ 0 ½ 0

-½
It would prove helpful in visualizing more readily the variation in
normal and shearing stress with respect to each other and with angle θ.
The graph shows that normal stresses are maximum at 0o and 180o and
minimum at 90o and 270o. It can be noted that where normal stresses
are maximum or minimum the shear stress is always zero. These
maximum or minimum normal stresses are called Principal stresses and
the Plane on which they act (Plane of zero shear stress) are known as
Principal Planes.
Also it can be noted that maximum values of shear stress  occurs when
θ is 45o or 135o and also that
 1
 max   max
2
Therefore maximum stresses are given by the following expression.
P
 max 
A
P
 max 
2A
The maximum and minimum values of σ and  can also be determined
by using calculus i.e. by differentiating them with θ and equating it
zero.
 d
d n   0,
 0, d
d
P
P (1  cos 2 ) Let   x
n  A
A 2
 1  cos 2 
P  sin 2 
n   x 
  
 2  2A  2 

d n  sin 2 
  x sin 2  0  x 
d  2 
when   0 d
  x cos 2  0
 n   max   x d
  45o
when   90 o

 n   min  0 x
 max   min 
2
 Importance of Tension Test
These observations lead us to consider more carefully the question of
the strength of a bar in simple tension. If the bar is made of a material
that is much weaker in shear than it is in cohesion, it may happen that
failure will take place due to relative slipping between two parts of the
bar along a 45°- plane where the shear stress is a maximum, rather than
due to direct rupture across a normal section where the normal stress is
a maximum. For example, a short wood post loaded in axial
compression, as shown in Fig. 2.2a, may actually fail by shearing along
a jagged plane inclined roughly by 45° to the axis of the post. In such
case, we may still specify the value of P/A at which this failure occurs
as the ultimate strength of the wood in compression, even though the
failure is not a true compression failure of the material.
Similarly, during a tensile test of a flat bar of low-carbon steel
with polished surfaces, it is possible to observe a very interesting
phenomenon. At a certain value of the tensile stress σ = P/A visible slip
bands approximately inclined by 45° to the axis of the bar will appear
on the flat sides of the specimen as shown in Fig. 2.2b. These lines,
called Lueders' lines, indicate that the material is failing in shear, even
though the bar is being loaded in simple tension. This relative sliding
along 45°-planes causes the specimen to elongate axially, and after
unloading it will not return to its original length. Such apparent
stretching of the bar due to this slip phenomenon is called plastic
yielding. Again, the axial tensile stress σy.p. = P/A at which this occurs
may be designated as the yield stress in tension, even though the failure
is not a true tension failure of the material. These matters will be
discussed further in the next article.
Laboratory experiments indicate that both shearing and normal stress
under axial loading are important since a brittle material loaded in
tension will fail in tension on transverse plane whereas a ductile
material loaded in tension will fail in shear on the 45o plane.
FIGURE 2.13Failure of an actual wood test specimen.
 Sign convention
Formulas (2.1), derived for the case of axial tension, can be used also
for axial compression, simply by changing the sign of P/A. We then
obtain negative values for both the normal stress σn and the shear
stress. The complete state of stress on a thin element between two
parallel oblique sections for axial tension and axial compression are
compared in Fig. 2.3. The directions of these stresses associated with
axial tension (Fig. 2.3a) will be considered as positive; those associated
with axial compression (Fig. 2.3b), as negative. Thus σn is positive
when it is a tensile stress and negative when it is a compressive stress.
By reference to Fig. 2.3, the rule for
sign of shear stress  will be as follows: The shear stress  on any face
of the element will be considered positive when it has a clockwise
moment with respect to a center inside the element (Fig. 2.3a). If the
moment is counterclockwise with respect to a center inside the element,
the shear stress is negative. Stated in a different way, the shear stress on
any surface of a body will be considered to be of positive sign if it
points in a direction corresponding to clockwise rotation about a center
inside the body, otherwise of negative sign. Several examples of both
positive and negative shear stress are shown in Fig. 2.4. These sign
conventions, while arbitrary, must nonetheless be carefully observed to
avoid confusion.
At this point, we shall adopt a sign convention for these
stresses: If the stress points in a direction that corresponds to a
clockwise rotation, the stress is positive; a negative shear stress is
associated with counterclockwise rotation. As previously mentioned,
the normal stresses are considered positive if there is a tensile load
acting on that face; it is negative for a compressive load. Referring to
Figure 1-20, stress xy is, according to our convention, positive, yx is
negative, σ1 and σ2 are positive.
Complementary Stress:
Returning to the case of a bar in axial tension, let us consider now the
stresses on an oblique section p' q' at right angles to the section pq, as
shown in Fig. 2.5. To obtain the stresses σ'n and ' on this section, we
need
only to replace θ, by 90° + θ in eqs. (2.1). Then remembering that sin
(90° + θ) = cos θ " while cos(90° + θ) = - sin θ this gives

P P 2 
 n '  cos (90   )  sin  ,
2 o

A A 

1P 1P 
 ' sin( 180  2 )  
o
sin 2 . 
2A 2A 
These stresses on the plane p' q' act as shown in Fig. 2.5b.
The complete set of stresses given by eqs. (2.1) and (2.1') are called
complementary stresses because they occur on mutually perpendicular
planes. Comparing the two sets of formulas, we observe that
 P 
 n   'n  , 
A 
 '   . 

Thus the sum of normal stresses σn and σ'n on any two mutually
perpendicular sections of a bar in axial tension is constant and equal to
P / A, the normal stress on the normal section mn. Also, complementary
shear stresses are always equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
 Alternative
The equality of complementary shear stresses such as  and ' on the
faces of a rectangular element (Fig. 2.6) also can be established from
the equilibrium conditions of the element itself, as follows: Let dz
denote the thickness of the element normal to the plane of the paper and
ds, ds', the lengths of its edges. Then the areas on which  and ' act will
be, respectively, dsdz and ds'dz. Multiplying the shear stresses by the
areas on which they act, we obtain two counteracting couples, the
moments of which must balance each other. Thus
(dsdz) × ds' = '(ds'dz) × ds,
from which  = ', where ' has already been represented as negative in
Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.6