Session-3

RESEARCH DESIGNS:
EXPLORATORY & DESCRIPTIVE
 SLIDE 3-1

Three principles of research designs

1. Convert the research question and stated
assumptions /hypotheses into operational variables
that can be measured;

2. Specify the process that would be followed to

complete the above task, as efficiently and
economically as possible; and

3. Specify the ‘control mechanism(s)’ that would be

used to ensure that the effect of other variables that
could impact the outcome of the study has been
minimized/negated.
 SLIDE 3-2

Classification of research designs

Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Research
Design Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross –
Longitudinal
Sectional
Design
Design

Single Multiple
Cross – Cross –
Sectional Sectional
Design Design
 SLIDE 3-3

The design continuum

 SLIDE 3-4

Types of research designs

 Exploratory research designs: are the simplest,
most flexible and most loosely structured designs. As
the name suggests, the basic objective of the study is
to explore and obtain clarity on the problem situation.

 Descriptive research designs: are more structured

and formal in nature. As the name implies the
objective of these studies is to provide a
comprehensive and detailed explanation of the
phenomena under study.
 SLIDE 3-5

Exploratory research designs

 Secondary resource analysis: Secondary sources

of data give information –in terms of details of
previously collected findings in facts and figures –
which has been authenticated and published.

 Case method: it is intricately designed and reveals

a comprehensive and complete presentation of
facts, as they occur, in a single entity. This could be
an individual, an organization or an entire country.
 SLIDE 3-6

Exploratory research designs

 Expert opinion survey: valuable insights obtained

from experts which might be based on their
experience in the field or based on academic work
done on the concept.

 Focus group discussions: a carefully selected

representative sub set of the larger respondent
gather to discuss together, in a short time frame, the
subject/topic to be investigated.
 SLIDE 3-7

Descriptive research designs

Cross-sectional research designs: two criteria
1. carried out at a single moment in time, therefore the
applicability is temporal specific
2. Conducted on a sub-section of the respondent
population

Variations
 Single/multiple cross- sectional designs

 Cohort analysis(different sample at different time)

 SLIDE 3-8

Descriptive research designs

 Longitudinal studies: three criteria

1. The study involves selection of a representative

group as a panel.
2. There are repeated measurement of the
researched variable on this panel over fixed
intervals of time.
3. Once selected the panel composition needs to
stay constant over the study period.
 SLIDE 3-9

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS

 SLIDE 3-10

What is an Experiment?

 An experiment is generally used to

infer a causality. In an experiment, a
researcher actively manipulates one
or more causal variables and
measures their effects on the
dependent variable of interest.
 SLIDE 3-11

Necessary Conditions for Making

Causal Inferences

 Concomitant variation( Extent to which cause

and effect vary together)

 Time order of occurrence of variables(Causal

variable must occur prior or parallel to effect)

 Absence of other possible causal factors

 SLIDE 3-12

Concepts Used in Experiments

 Independent variables: Independent variables
are also known as explanatory variables or
treatments. The levels of these variables are
manipulated (changed) by researchers to
measure their effect on the dependent variable.
 Test units: Test units are those entities on which
treatments are applied.
 Dependent variables: These variables measures
the effect of treatments (independent variable) on
the test units.
 SLIDE 3-13

Concepts Used In Experiments

 Experiment: An experiment is executed when the
researcher manipulates one or more independent
variables and measures their effect on the dependent
variables while controlling the effect of the
extraneous variables.
 Extraneous variables: These are the variables other
than the independent variables which influence the
response of test units to treatments.

Examples: Store size, government policies,

temperature, food intake, geographical location, etc.
 SLIDE 3-14
Environments of Conducting
Experiments
 Laboratory Environment - In a laboratory
experiment, the researcher conducts the
experiment in an artificial environment
constructed exclusively for the experiment.

 Field Environment - The field experiment is

conducted in actual market conditions. There is
no attempt to change the real-life nature of the
environment.
 SLIDE 3-15

Validity in Experimentation
 Internal validity: Internal validity tries to examine
whether the observed effect on a dependent
variable is actually caused by the treatments
(independent variables) in question.
 External validity: External validity refers to the
generalization of the results of an experiment.
The concern is whether the result of an
experiment can be generalized beyond the
experimental situations.
 SLIDE 3-16

Factors Affecting Internal Validity

of the Experiment
 History
 Maturation
 Testing
 Instrumentation
 Statistical regression
 Selection bias
 Test unit mortality
 SLIDE 3-17

Factors Affecting External Validity

 The environment at the time of test may be
different from the environment of the real world
where these results are to be generalized.
 Population used for experimentation of the test
may not be similar to the population where the
results of the experiments are to be applied.
 Results obtained in a 5–6 week test may not hold
in an application of 12 months.
 Treatment at the time of the test may be different
from the treatment of the real world.
 SLIDE 3-18

Methods to Control Extraneous

Variables
 Randomization

 Matching

 Use of experimental designs

 Statistical control
 SLIDE 3-19
A Classification of Experimental
Designs
 SLIDE 3-20

Pre-experimental design
Pre-experimental designs do not make use of any randomization
procedures to control the extraneous variables. Therefore, the
internal validity of such designs is questionable.

 One-shot case study:

X O
 One-group pre-test–post-test design:

O1 X O2
 Static group comparison:

Group 1 - X O1
Group 2 - O2
 SLIDE 3-21

Quasi-experimental designs
In quasi-experimental design, the researcher can
control when measurements are taken and on
whom they are taken. However, this design lacks
complete control of scheduling of treatment and
also lacks the ability to randomize test units’
exposure to treatments.

 Time series design:

O1 O 2 O3 O4 X O 5 O6 O7 O8
Contd…..
 SLIDE 3-22

Quasi-experimental designs
 SLIDE 3-23

Quasi-experimental designs
 Multiple time series design:

Experimental Group: O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

Control Group: O′1 O′2 O′3 O′4 O′5 O′6 O′7 O′8
 SLIDE 3-24

True experimental designs

In true experimental designs, researchers can
randomly assign test units and treatments to an
experimental group. Here, the researcher is able to
eliminate the effect of extraneous variables from
both the experimental and control group.

 Pre-test–post-test control group:

Experimental Group: R O1 X O2
Control Group: R O3 O4
 SLIDE 3-25

True experimental designs

 Post-test – only control group design:

Experimental Group: R X O1
Control Group: R O2

 Solomon four-group design:

Experimental Group 1 : R O1 X O2
Control Group 1: R O3 O4
Experimental Group 2: R X O5
Control Group 2: R O6
 SLIDE 3-26

Statistical designs
Statistical designs allow for statistical control and analysis of
external variables.
 Completely randomized design (Effect of X(nominal) on Y)

 Randomized block design (To separate influence of

extraneous variable on dependent variable)
 Latin square design(For separating the influence of two
Extraneous Variables with equal number of categories)
 Factorial design (For Independent variables at various
levels)