Lec 11+12+13

Flow Control
Chapter 12
1
What is flow
• Flow is the motion characteristic

of constrained fluids (liquids or
gases).
• In case of powdered solids, it is
the mass transported by time.
2
What is flow
• Automated systems that control flow
first determine flow rates or volume by
various measurement techniques, and
then use the data to regulate the
movement.
• These systems employ a source, a path,
a control function, an actuator, and a
measuring instrument to operate.
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Reasons for flow control
• To provide good control in the process industries,
accurate measurement of flow is essential. Three
reasons to monitor the flow of materials are:
• To ensure that the correct proportions of raw
materials are combined during manufacturing
process.
• To ensure that ingredients are supplied at the proper
rate during mixing and blending of materials.
• To prevent a high flow rate that might cause
pressure or temperatures to become dangerous,
overspills to occur or machines to over speed.
6
Units of flow measurement
• Volumetric flow rate

• Mass flow rate
7
Volumetric Flow rate
• Volumetric flow rate instruments
are used to determine the volume
of material that flows during a
specific period of time.
• The volume can be read as cubic
feet, gallons, or liters. The time can
be read per unit of time such as
seconds, minutes, or hours.
8
Volumetric Flow rate
• In many situations, volumetric flow rate is not
measured directly. Instead, an inferred measurement
is taken.
• Inferred means that some other variable is
measured, and then translated into the reading that
is required.
• For example, volumetric" flow rate of a liquid can be
determined by measuring the velocity at which it
flows through a pipe.
• By using the velocity measurement and the area of
the pipe, the volumetric flow rate can be calculated.
9
Mass Flow rate
• Mass flow rate instruments are used to
determine the weight of materials that
flow during a specified time period.
• The weight can be read in pounds, tons,
grams, or kilograms.
• The time can be read per unit of time,
such as seconds, minutes, or hours.
10
Solid flow measurement
• The solid materials that are
measured for mass flow rate are
typically in the form of small
particles, such as powder, pellets, or
crushed material.
• A conveyor belt is usually used to
move these materials from one
location to another.
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• The powder is released by the hopper and
transferred to another location, such as a mixing vat,
a storage tank, or the hold of a ship.
• A measurement is taken by a load cell device that
determines the weight of a fixed length of the belt.
• Using inferred data, such as the weight measurement
and speed of the belt, allows a calculation of the
mass flow rate.
• Mass flow rate = Weight * Belt speed .
length of weighing platform
13
Fluid flow measurement
• Liquids, gases, and vapors are classified as
fluids.
• The accurate measurement and control of
fluid flow is essential in industrial processing
plants that use water, steam, gases,
petroleum, acids, base solutions, and other
types of fluid materials.
14
Principles of Pipe Flow
• There are several influences that determine
how fluids flow through a system.
• These influences often have a significant
impact on how well a particular flow meter
will perform in a given application.
• The following terms list and describe each
influence. They must be understood when
studying the principles of liquid flow control:
15
• Velocity: The velocity of a fluid is the speed at
which it moves through the pipe. The faster
the fluid is flowing, the more inertia it has.
Some flowmeters work well with very high or
very low velocity fluids, while others do not. In
the United States, the unit of measurement is
feet per second.
16
• Density: The density of a fluid is its weight per
unit of volume. Both temperature and
pressure affect the density of fluids and can
alter the accuracy of measurements,
especially for gases and vapors. High
temperatures or lower pressure cause the
fluid to expand so that the molecules move
farther apart, which causes the weight of a
given volume to be less than it would be at la
lower temperature or higher pressure.
17
• Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid represents the
ease with which it flows. A numerical unit of
measure used to represent viscosity is called the
poise or centipoise. A higher number indicates
increased viscosity and more reluctance to flow.
The temperauues to which the fluids are exposed
affect viscosity. With liquid, a lower temperature
will cause the viscosity to increase, creating more
reluctance, which slows the flow rate. With gases,
a lower temperature decreases viscosity, and
creates less reluctance to flow.
18
• Pipe size: The size of the pipe carrying a fluid
affects the flow. The larger the diameter, the
more easily the fluid will pass through.
19
Reynolds number
• The number represents the ratio of the liquid’s
inertial forces to its drag (viscous) forces. The
velocity, pipe diameter, and fluid density are
inertial forces, and viscosity is the drag force.
The R number is used to identify the type of
flow currents that are likely to occur.
20
Reynolds number
• At very low velocities, Reynolds number is low
and laminar flow takes place. With this type of
flow, liquid moves in layers.
• However, the fluids do not flow in uniform
velocities across a given cross section of the pipe.
• The layers in contact with the pipe wall move at
velocities close to zero because of friction.
• As drag forces decrease farther away from the
pipe, the layers progressively travel at faster
speeds as they near the center.
21
Reynolds number
22
Classification of flow meters
• Differential Pressure
– Differential Pressure Meter
– Rotameter
• Positive Displacement
– Rotary-Vane Flowmeter
– Lobed Impeller Flowmeter
• Velocity
– Turbine Flowmeter
23
Differential pressure meter
• The differential pressure flowmeter is the
most common type of instrument used to
measure the flow of fluids through a pipe.
• These instruments account for well over 50
percent of all flow measuring devices used in
the process industry.
24
• A restriction on the flow, called-an orifice, is
installed in the pipe between two flanges.
• An orifice is a metal plate with a hole of a
specified size bored through it. The purpose of
the orifice is to reduce the area that the fluid
can flow through.
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• According to the laws of conservation of energy,
the mass (fluid) entering a pipe must equal the
mass leaving the pipe during the same time
period.
• Therefore, the velocity of the fluid that leaves the
orifice is faster than the fluid that approaches it.
• According to Bernoulli’s principle, as the velocity
of a fluid increases, pressure decreases.
29
• The result is that there is more pressure on
the incoming side of the orifice than on the
outgoing side.
• As the fluid flow rate increases, the differential
pressure also increases.
• Velocity can be calculated from an inferred
differential pressure measurement and used
to determine volumetric flow rate
30
• There are several types of orifices/ primary
elements
31
• The disadvantage of the first design in is that
the plate has sharp corners on which solid
materials can catch. Therefore, it is not used
to measure slurries, dirty fluids, or corrosive
liquids.
32
• The flow nozzle type has a constriction with
an elliptical contour shape. Since there are no
sharp edges at the inlet side, there is less
friction to the flow. Therefore, because of its
slope, it is used to measure steam and high
capacity applications that deal with dirty or
corrosive liquids.
33
• The Venturi tube style consists of a converging
inlet section in which the cross section
decreases in size. Venturi tube has no sudden
change in contour, solid particles tend to slide
through its throat. The disadvantage ofthis
style is that the resulting measurements are
not as accurate.
34
• The advantages of using differential pressure meters
are that they are popular, well understood,
inexpensive; they have no moving parts; and they are
well suited for most gases and liquids.
• 0ne limitation is that there is a nonlinear relationship
between differential pressure and flow. Therefore, to
linearize the signal, a transmitter or controller is used
to extract the square root of the differential pressure
measurement.
• Another limitation is that these meters present an
obstruction to flow, which results in some
unrecoverable pressure loss.
35
Rotameter
• The rotameter is a variation of the differential
pressure flowmeter.
• The rotameter consists of a tapered metering ,
tube that is vertically mounted and a float that
is free to move up and down within the tube.
36
Rota meter
37
Rotameter
• The fluid to be measured enters the bottom of
the tube and exits at the top.
• Its operation is based on the variable
Equilibrium area principle, where the flow
raises the float to allow passage of the fluid
38
Rotameter
• The movement of the float is directly
proportional to the flow rate.
• A marker on the float is used to identify a
number on a measurement scale that
indicates the flow rate.
39
Positive Displacement Flowmeters
• Positive displacement (PD) devices are rotary
instruments that mechanically make direct
measurements to determine flow. They
operate by separating the fluid into segments
of known values, and passing them down-
stream through the pipe.
– Rotary-Vane Flowmeter
– Lobed Impeller Flowmeter
40
Rotary Vane Flowmeter
• The most common type of positive
displacement meter sis the rotary-vane
flowmeter. This meter operates by fluid
entering each chamber section through the
inlet port. As fluid fills the chamber, it forces
the rotor to turn clockwise.
41
• The chamber is separated by spring-loaded vanes
located in channels of the rotor body.
• As the rotor turns, the vanes slide in and out so
that they make constant contact with the cylinder
wall.
• The fluid is discharged when each chamber
section reaches the outlet port.
• Since the volume of each revolution is known, the
volumetric flow rate can be determined by
multiplying the displacement times the RPM.
42
• The chamber is separated by spring-loaded vanes
located in channels of the rotor body.
• As the rotor turns, the vanes slide in and out so
that they make constant contact with the cylinder
wall.
• The fluid is discharged when each chamber
section reaches the outlet port.
• Since the volume of each revolution is known, the
volumetric flow rate can be determined by
multiplying the displacement times the RPM.
43
Lobed Impeller Flowmeter
• The lobed impeller flow meter is
a positive displacement meter
constructed with two carefully
machined lobes Inlet Outlet that
have very close clearances with
each other and with the meter
housing.
44
Limitations of PD Meters
• The measurements taken from positive
displacement meters are accurate. However,
because they are self-powered they extract
some energy from the system.
• Also, since they consist of mechanical parts,
they are prone to wear.
45
Velocity Meters
• Velocity flowmeters measure the velocity of
fluid flow directly.
• A volumetric flow measurement is determined
by the formula
volumetric flow rate = velocity * area of pipe
46
Turbine Flowmeter
• The output of the turbine flowmeter is a pickup coil.
• Stationary flux lines extend from a permanent magnet
placed inside the coil to the area in which thee turbine
blades turn.
• Each time one of the ferrous blades passes through the
magnetic field, the flux lines become distorted due to a
change in reluctance.
• As the lines are being altered, they cut across the
pickup coil which generates a pulse voltage by
induction.
• The frequency of the pulses is proportional to the
rotational speed of the turbine.
47
Electronic Sensors
• Coriolis meter
• Rotor flow detector,
• electromagnetic flow detector
• thermal flowmeter
• vortex flowmeter
• ultrasonic flowmeter
• Time-of-flight meter.
48
Coriolis Meter
• One type of device that measures mass of
liquids is the Coriolis meter. It features a U-
shaped tube for fluids to flow through.
49
Coriolis Meter
• Fluctuating currents are sent through coils
mounted near the tube. The magnetic forces
they generate cause the tube to vibrate,
similar to a timing fork.
• As fluids flow through the tube, kinetic energy
is produced by its speed and mass. The energy
from the liquid tends to resist the vibrating
motion of the tube, causing it to twist
sideways.
50
Coriolis Meter
• The degree of deflection is directly and
linearly proportional to the mass of liquid
passing through the U-tube.
• Magnetic position sensors are mounted on
both ends of the tube to measure the amount
of twist.
• The outputs from each sensor are conditioned
into standard signals before they are sent to
display units or to control equipment.
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Coriolis Meter
52
Coriolis Meter
• The degree of deflection is directly and
linearly proportional to the mass of liquid
passing through the U-tube.
• Magnetic position sensors are mounted on
both ends of the tube to measure the amount
of twist.
• The outputs from each sensor are conditioned
into standard signals before they are sent to
display units or to control equipment.
53
Coriolis Meter
• Coriolis meters are capable of measuring the
mass of all types of fluids.
• However, their accuracy can be diminished if
exposed to mechanical noise vibration.
54
Rotor flow detectors
• They utilize a simple paddle wheel design to
provide flow indication.
55
• A permanent , magnet is embedded in each of
the rotor blade.
• Fluid flow causes a rotor rotation that is
proportional to the flow rate.
• Each pass by a magnetized blade excites a Hall-
effect device in the sensor body, producing a
voltage pulse.
• The number of electrical pulses counted for a
period of time is directly proportional to flow
volume.
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• This sensor can measure the flow rate of a wide
variety of liquids including acids, solvents, and
most corrosive fluids.
• They have a flow response of 0.3fps to l0fps in
pipe sizes with diameters from 0.5 in. to 36in.
• Rotor flow meters must be placed on the edge of
the flow.
• If the entire rotor is placed in the flow, the paddle
wheel may not turn at all.
• Turbine flow meters can be totally immersed
within the flow.
58
Electromagnetic flow detector
• The electromagnetic flow detector is a
transducer that converts the volumetric flow
rate of a conductive substance into voltage.
• Major components are a flow tube, two
electromagnetic coils mounted across from
each other outside the flow tube, and two
electrodes inside the pipe wall.
59
• The electromagnetic flow detector is a
transducer that converts the volumetric flow
rate of a conductive substance into voltage.
• Major components are a flow tube, two
electromagnetic coils mounted across from
each other outside the flow tube, and two
electrodes inside the pipe wall.
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• The electromagnetic flow detector’s principle of
operation is based on Faraday’s Law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that a
voltage will be induced into a conductor when it
moves through a magnetic field.
• The liquid serves as the moving conductor.
• The magnetic field is created by the energized
coils, which produce flux lines perpendicular to
the fluid flow.
• The induced voltage is measured by the two
electrodes.
63
• This voltage is the summation of the voltage
developed by each molecule in the flowing
substance.
• As the fluid speed increases, the number of
molecules a voltage is induced into also
increases.
• Therefore, the amount of voltage produced is
proportional to the flow rate.
64
• Electromagnetic flow detectors are generally
used to measure difficult and corrosive liquids
and slurries, such as acids, sewage,
detergents, and liquid foods.
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Thermal flowmeters
• Flow detectors that use a paddle wheel or an
orifice are susceptible to clogging.
• Also, their ability to detect flow at low velocities
is limited due to the inertia of the wheel or the
inability of the orifice sensors to detect small
differential pressures.
• Thermal flowmeters, that use a thermistor, have
only a sensor tip that is inserted into the flow
stream.
• They do not become clogged and can detect very
low flow rates.
66
Thermal flowmeters
67
Thermal flowmeters
• It works on the principle of thermal conductivity.
Thermistor sensing head is mounted inside a
pipe.
• As fluid passes, it carries away heat from the
thermistor.
• The higher the rate, the cooler the thermistor
becomes, increasing its resistance.
• The result is that the bridge becomes more
unbalanced and the output voltage goes higher.
• A meter with a flow rate scale is connected across
the output terminals and indicates the increase.
68
Thermal flowmeters
• If the temperature of the fluid happens to change, so
will the thermistor resistance.
• To prevent the flowmeter from giving a false reading, a
second thermistor sensing head is used.
• Since both thermistors are in the pipe, the fluid
temperature affects their resistances equally.
• Their placement in the bridge causes the resulting
voltage changes to cancel each other.
• Therefore, the only voltage at the output is the one
caused by the flow rate.
• Thermistor 2 is shielded, so its resistance is not
affected by the flow.
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Thermal flowmeters (variation)
70
Vortex flowmeters
• A blunt unstreamlined object such as a bar or
strut is placed in the flow path of the fluid.
• As the liquid is forced around the obstacle,
viscosity-related effects cause a series of
vortices to develop downstream.
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Vortex flowmeters
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Vortex flowmeters
• The swirls are shed from one side of the
obstacle and then the other in a predictable
pattern.
• Within a wide range of Reynolds numbers, the
number of vortices that appear downstream
in a given period is directly proportional to the
volumetric flow rate.
• A pressure detector placed downstream from
the blunt object detects the vortices.
73
Vortex flowmeters
74
Vortex flowmeters
• The sensing element converts the pressure
fluctuations into electrical pulse signals.
• Within the sensor, the electronics convert the
frequency into velocity, and velocity into a
• The vortex meter requires little or no
maintenance because it is rugged, simple, and
has no moving parts.
• However, since it introduces an obstruction in the
pipe, it is limited to measuring only clean liquids
to avoid clogging the pipe.
75
Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeters
• It operates on a principle of sound
propagation in a liquid called the Doppler
effect.
• As current pulses are sent by an oscillator
through a piezoelectric transducer, it vibrates
and produces sound waves that are
transmitted upstream into the flowing liquid.
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• Each ultrasonic wave is reflected from
particles or gas bubbles in the fluid back to a
receiving element.
• The receiver is a piezoelectric device that
detects pressure fluctuations created by the
pulsating sound Waves.
• This transducer converts the sound into
electronic pulses that are processed by the
measuring instrument circuitry.
79
• Because the fluid is moving toward the receiver, the
frequency of the reflected pulse received is higher than
that of the transmitted pulse.
• The difference in frequency is proportional to the fluid
velocity.
• As the velocity increases, the received frequency
increases to create larger differences relative to the
fixed frequency of the transmitter.
• Therefore, by measuring the frequency difference
between the electrical pulses of the oscillator and the
pulses at the receiver, flow rate can be recorded by the
meter.
80
• Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeters are not suited
for clean fluids because they require particles
from which the sonic pulses are reflected.
• For this reason, and because the sensor is
placed outside the pipe, they are ideal for
dirty liquids and slurries.
81
Ultrasonic Time-of-flight flowmeters
• The ultrasonic flowmeter using the Doppler
approach requires reflective objects in the
fluid. Therefore, it is ineffective when
measuring clean fluids.
• When very clean fluids are used, the time-of-
flight ultrasonic method is generally
recommended.
82
• The time-of-flight approach operates on the
principle that the speed of an ultrasonic sound
wave will increase when transmitted in the
direction of flow, and decrease when transmitted
against the direction of flow movement.
• An analogy is that an airplane can fly faster when
traveling in the direction of the prevailing wind
current than it can when flying against the wind.
83
• The time-of-flight flowmeter contains two
transducers, one on each side of the pipeline.
• An ultrasonic signal is sent from the upstream
transducer on a diagonal path toward the
downstream transducer.
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• As it travels through the flows tream, the natural
velocity of the ultrasonic signal is increased by
the speed at which the fluid flows.
• The time at which the signal travels from the
upstream detector to the downstream detector is
recorded.
• As soon as the downstream transducer receives
the signal, it records the time and sends a signal
back to the upstream transducer.
87
• By moving against the direction of flow, this
signal travels at its natural speed minus the
velocity of the fluid.
• When the upstream transducer receives the
signal, the time is recorded.
• The difference in time it takes for the signals to
move in both directions is a direct measure of
fluid velocity.
• This information is electronically converted to
88
• One requirement for this type of meter is that the
liquid being measured must be relatively clean.
• Any particles in the fluid may absorb or scatter
the signal and make the reading inaccurate.
• The advantages of ultrasonic flowmeters are that
they are noninvasive and that the absence of
obstructions does not create a pressure loss.
• Their limitations are that they are relatively
expensive and are not as accurate as some other
types of flowmeters.
89
Flowmeter Placement
• As fluid encounters obstacles, such as valves
or other geometric obstructions in the piping,
the flow profile may become distorted and
swirl.
90
Flowmeter Placement
91
Flowmeter Placement
• One of the effects of swirl is that fluid flows-in
a direction that is not parallel to the pipe, but
in a direction across the diameter to the pipe.
• Fluids flowing in such random paths can take
more time to move past the point of
measurement and cause the reading to
become inaccurate.
92
Flowmeter Placement
• To minimize these conditions, the measuring
device should be placed to 20 pipeline
diameters downstream from an obstruction.
• One method used to eliminate destructive
swirls is to use a flow current produced
straightener.
93
Flowmeter Placement
94
Flowmeter Placement
95
Flowmeter Placement
96
Flowmeter Placement
• When selecting the most appropriate flow measuring
device for a particular application the following issues
should be considered:
• Is the fluid gas or a liquid?
• Is the fluid corrosive?
• Is the fluid electrically conductive or not?
• Does the fluid contain a slurry or large solids?
• What is the fluid viscosity?
• Will the fluid density or viscosity change?
• Is there a need for a noninvasive approach?
• What is the need for accuracy and repeatability?
• What is the cost?
97

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Flow Control

• Flow is the motion characteristic

• Volumetric flow rate

volumetric ﬂow rate = velocity * area of pipe

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