Nature of Statistics

By:

Jem Boy B. Cabrella, Ph.D.

October 29, 2016
References:
 Tattao, Luis A. (2007). Basic Concepts in
Statistics: (Worktext). Manila: Rex Book Store.
 Sirug, Winston S. (2011). Basic Probability

and Statistics: A Step by Step Approach.

Manila: Mindshapers Co., Inc.
 Walpole, R. (1997). Introduction to
Statistics. (3rd Ed.). Prentice Hall
International, Inc.
 Asaad, A. (2008). Statistics Made Simple for

Researchers. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.

 Statistics

 The science that deals with the

body of principles and procedures
for the collection, organization,
summarization, presentation, and
analysis of numerical data (Asaad,
2008)
Division of Statistics

o Descriptive Statistics – is the totality of

methods and treatments employed in the
collection, description, and analysis of
numerical data (Tattao, 2007).
o Inferential Statistics – is the logical process
from sample analysis to a generalization or
conclusion about a population. It is also
called statistical inference or inductive
statistics (Tattao, 2007).
 Descriptive Statistics
 Comprises those methods
concerned with collecting and
describing a set of data so as to
yield meaningful information
(Walpole, 1997)
 Examples: construction of tables,
charts, graphs, measures of central
tendency, measures of location, and
measures of variability
 Inferential Statistics
 Comprises those methods concerned
with the analysis of a subset of data
leading to predictions or inferences
about the entire set of data (Walpole,
1997)
 Examples: tests on hypothesis testing:

t-test, z-test, Chi-square, ANOVA,

Pearson r, Linear Regression Analysis
Population and Sample
A population consists of all the members of
the group about which we want to draw a
conclusion
A sample is a portion, or part, of the
population of interest selected for analysis.
Population Sample

L B D N G A
F E H J T MR N Q K C M
S W Q V OP R W P D
C I K
Parameter and Statistic
Parameter is a numerical index describing a
characteristic of a population.

Examples: population mean, population SD

Statistic is a numerical index describing a

characteristic of a sample.

Examples: sample mean, sample SD

Sources of Data:
There are two main sources of data:

Primary data are data that come from an original

source, and are intended to answer specific research
questions, can be taken by interview, mail-in
questionnaire, survey, or experimentation

Secondary data are data that are taken from

previously recorded data, such as information in
research conducted, industry financial statements,
business periodicals, and government reports. It can
also be taken electronically (e.g. via internet websites,
CD, etc.)
Sources of Data:
1. Data already published by governmental,
industrial, or individual sources (e.g. NSO, daily
newspaper, etc.)
2. Data obtained from an experiment like those
in the experimental study
3. Data obtained from a conducted survey
4. Data obtained through an observational
study
Main Reasons for the Data
Collection:
1. Data are needed to provide the necessary input to
a survey.
2. Data are needed to provide the necessary input to
a study.
3. Data are needed to measure performance of an
ongoing service or production process.
4. Data are needed to evaluate conformance to
standards.
5. Data are needed to assist in formulating alternative
courses of action in a decision making process.
6. Data are needed to satisfy our curiosity.
Constant and Variable
A constant is a characteristic of objects,
people, or events that do not vary.
Example: the temperature at which water
freezes (0 degree Celsius)

A variable is a characteristic of objects,

people, or events that can take of different
values.
Example: weight, gender, hair color
Sampling Techniques
Sampling refers to the process of selecting these
individuals.

3 main reasons for drawing a sample:

1. A sample is less time consuming than a
census.
2. A sample is less costly to administer than a
census.
3. A sample is less cumbersome and more
practical to administer than a census of the
targeted population.
Types of Sampling
Techniques
 Random Sampling is a process of whose
members had an equal chance of being
selected from the population; it is also
called probability sampling.

 Non-Random Sampling is a sampling

procedure where samples in a deliberate
manner where little or no attention to
randomization; it is also called non-
probability sampling.
Random Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
A simple random sample is one which every
individual or item from a population has an equal
chance of selection as every other individual or item.

   = sample size; N = population size

n
 Every item or person in the frame is

numbered from 1 to N. The chance is

 2 Basic methods: with replacement and

without replacement
 Using “fishbowl” method (lottery) and a table

of random numbers
Systematic Sampling
  a systematic sampling, the N individuals or
In
items in the population frame are partitioned into
k groups by dividing the size of the population by
the desired sample size n. That is, ,
where k is rounded to the nearest integer.

Example: Say we want to consider every 5th on the

list.
233412141323243927231215162326282322
193425221830232417181512
Systematic Sampling
  a systematic sampling, the N individuals or
In
items in the population frame are partitioned into
k groups by dividing the size of the population by
the desired sample size n. That is, ,
where k is rounded to the nearest integer.

Example: Say we want to consider every 5th on the

list.
123456789101112131415161718 19202122
2324252627282930
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a process of
subdividing the population into subgroups or
strata and drawing members at random from
each subgroup or stratum.
Field of Specialization Population
Nursing 6,000
Accountancy/Accounting 500
Tech
IT 2,000
Marketing 1,000
Education 2,500
Total 12,000
Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is a process of
subdividing the population into subgroups or
strata and drawing members at random from
each subgroup or stratum.
Field of
Sampl
Specializatio Population Percentage Found by
e Size
n
Nursing 6,000 50.00%
Accountancy/ 500 4.16%
Acctng Tech
IT 2,000 16.66%
Marketing 1,000 8.33%
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a process of selecting
clusters from a population which is very large
or widely spread out over a wide geographical
area.

Example: By district like Digos Occidental,

Digos Oriental and Mt. Apo; or by area like
MABAMA, etc.
Non-Random Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is a process of
selecting a group of individuals who
(conveniently) are available for study.

Example: A researcher may only include close

friends and clients to be included in the sample
population
Purposive Sampling
Purposive sampling is a process of selecting based
from judgment to select a sample which the researcher
believed, based on prior information, will provide the
data they need.

The disadvantage of purposive sampling is that the

researcher’s judgment may be error.

Example: A human resource director interviews the

qualified applicants in a supervisory position. (Note:
Qualified applicants are selected by the HR Director
which is based from his own judgment.)
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is applied when an investigator
survey collects information from an assigned num-
ber, or quota of individuals from one of several
sample units fulfilling certain prescribed criteria or
belonging to one stratum.
Advantage: They are cheaper to administer

Example: When the respondents are composed of men

aged over 30 or 20 who have bought cellular phones
in the last week. It is in the interviewer’s discretion
which men or cellular phone buyers they are selected.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a technique in which one
or more members of a population are located and
used to lead the researchers to other members of
the population.

Example: Imagine attempting to obtain the frame

that includes all homeless people in Metro
Manila. To obtain a sample of homeless
individuals, for example, the researcher will
interview individuals on the street or at homeless
shelter.
5 Methods of Collecting Data
1. Direct or Interview Method
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method
3. Registration Method
4. Observation Method
5. Experiment Method
Direct or Interview Method
Interview is a face-to-face encounter between
the interviewer and the interviewee. The
interview may vary according to the preference
of either or both parties. However, this method
is time-consuming, expensive, and has limited
field coverage.
Indirect or Questionnaire Method
Unlike direct method, this method is utilized
questionnaires to obtain information. It can be
done by mail or hand-carried to the intended
respondents.
Registration Method
This method of gathering information is
governed by laws.

Example: birth certificates, death certificates,

and professional driver’s license, PRC license,
etc.
Observation Method
This method is used to data that are pertaining
to behaviors of an individual or a group of
individuals at the time of occurrence of a given
situation are best obtained by observation.

Limitation: Observation is made only at the

time or occurrence of the appropriate events.
Experimental Method
This is used to determine the cause and effect
relationship of certain phenomena under
controlled conditions. This method is usually
employed by scientific researchers.
Methods of Presenting Data
1. Textual Method. This method presents the
collected data in narrative and paragraphs form.
2. Tabular Method. This method presents the
collected data in table which are orderly
arranged in rows and columns for an easier and
more comprehensive comparison of figures.
3. Graphical Method. This method presents the
collected data in visual or pictorial form to get a
clear view of data (e.g. histogram, pie chart,
pareto chart, pictograph, etc.)
Quiz Apr. 29, 2016
Part I. True/False. Identify whether the statement is
true or false.

1. Another name for descriptive statistics is inferential

statistics.
2. A population in statistics means a collection of all
subjects or objects of interest.
3. A number calculated with complete population data
and quantifies a characteristic of the population refers to
a parameter.

4. In descriptive statistics our main objective is to

describe the population.
5. Survey is the process of drawing a sample from a
population.
Part II. Multiple Choice. Choose the best answer. Write
the letter of your answer.

1. Which of the following is not a method of data collection?

a. Questionnaires c. Observations
b. Interviews d. Textual

2. Which of the following is not a method of presenting data?

a. Questionnaires c. Graphical method
b. Tabular method d. Textual method

3. Which of the following terms best describes data that were

originally collected by different person for different purpose?
a. Primary data c. Experimental data
b. Secondary data d. Raw data
4. Which of the following is not a form of non-random
sampling?
a. Purposive sampling c. Convenience sampling
b. Quota sampling d. Systematic sampling

5. Which of the following would generally require the

largest sample size?
a. Simple random sampling c. Cluster sampling
b. Systematic sampling d. Stratified sampling

6. A sampling method when each member of a population

has an equally likely chance of being selected.
a. Purposive sampling c. Quota sampling
b. Nonrandom sampling d. Random sampling
7. If a researcher took the 300 government employees,
divided them by gender, and then took a random sample of
the males and a random sampling of the females, the
variable on which we would divide the population is called
the ________.
a. dependent variable c. sampling variable
b. independent variable d. stratification variable

8. Which of the following will give a more “accurate”

representation of the population from which sample has
been taken?
a. A small cluster sample.
b. A large sample based on simple random sampling.
c. A small sample based on simple random sampling.
d. A large sample based on purposive sampling.
9. The science of statistics is/are which of the following:
a. organizing data. c. interpreting data.
b. presenting data. d. all of the above

10. Determining the sample interval (represented by k),

randomly selecting a number between 1 and k, and including
each kth element in your sample are the steps for which
form of sampling?
a. Simple random sampling
b. Systematic sampling
c. Cluster sampling
d. Stratified sampling
Answer Key:

Part I Part II
1. False 1. D 6. D
2. True 2. A 7. D
3. True 3. B 8. C
4. True 4. D 9. D
5. False 5. C 10. B