Fiber Media Optical fibers use light to send information through the optical medium.

It uses the principal

of total internal reflection. Modulated light transmissions are used to transmit the signal. Light travels
through the optical media by the way of total internal reflection. Modulation scheme used is intensity
modulation. Two types of Fiber media : Multimode Singlemode Multimode Fiber can support less
bandwidth than Singlemode Fiber. Singlemode Fiber has a very small core and carry only one beam of
light. It can support Gbps data rates over > 100 Km without using repeaters. The bandwidth of the fiber is
limited due to the dispersion effect. Distance Bandwidth product of a fiber is almost a constant. Fiber
optic cables consist of multiple fibers packed inside protective covering. 62.5/125 µm (850/1310 nm)
multimode fiber 50/125 µm (850/1310 nm) multimode fiber 10 µm (1310 nm) single-mode fiber.
Wireless Media Very useful in difficult terrain where cable laying is not possible. Provides mobility to
communication nodes. Right of way and cable laying costs can be reduced. Susceptible to rain,
atmospheric variations and Objects in transmission path. Indoor : 10 – 50m : BlueTooth, WLAN Short
range Outdoor : 50 – 200m: WLAN Mid Range Outdoor : 200m – 5 Km : GSM, CDMA, WLAN Point-to-
Point, Wi-Max Long Range Outdoor : 5 Km – 100 Km : Microwave Point-to-Point Long Distance
Communication : Across Continents : Satellite Communication.
Cabling Rules Try to avoid running cables parallel to power cables. Do not bend cables to less than four
times the diameter of the cable. If you bundle a group of cables together with cable ties (zip ties), do not
over-cinch them. You should be able to turn the tie with fingers. Keep cables away from devices which
can introduce noise into them. Here's a short list: copy machines, electric heaters, speakers, printers, TV
sets, fluorescent lights, copiers, welding machines, microwave ovens, telephones, fans, elevators, motors,
electric ovens, dryers, washing machines, and shop equipment. Avoid stretching UTP cables (tension
when pulling cables should not exceed 25 LBS). Do not run UTP cable outside of a building. It presents a
very dangerous lightning hazard! Do not use a stapler to secure UTP cables. Use telephone wire/RJ6
coaxial wire hangers which are available at most hardware stores.
Hub Hubs are used to connect multiple nodes to a single physical device, which connects to the network.
Hubs are actually multiport repeaters. Using a hub changes the network topology from a linear bus, to a
star. With hubs, data arriving over the cables to a hub port is electrically repeated on all the other ports
connected to the same network segment, except for the porton which the data was sent.
Bridge Bridges are used to logically separate network segments within the same network. They operate
at the OSI data link layer (Layer 2) and areindependent of higherlayer protocols. The function of the
bridge is to make intelligent decisions about whether or not to pass signals on to the next segment of a
network. When a bridge receives a frame on the network, the destination MAC address is looked up in
the bridge table to determine whether to filter, flood, or copy the frame onto another segment
Broadcast Packets are forwarded
Switch Switches are MultiportBridges. Switches provide a unique network segment on each port,
thereby separating collision domains. Today, network designers are replacing hubs in their wiring closets
with switches to increase their network performance and bandwidth while protecting their existing
wiring investments. Like bridges, switches learn certain information about the data packets that are
received from various computers on the network. Switches use this information to build forwarding
tables to determine the destination of data being sent by one computer to another computer on the
network.
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used in Ethernet Networks to find the MAC address of a node given
its IP address. Source node (say 192.168.2.32) sends broadcast message (ARP Request) on its subnet
asking ``Who is 192.168.2.33’’. All computers on subnet receive this request Destination responds (ARP
Reply) since it has 192.168.2.33 Provides its MAC address in response
Internetworking Devices Device Description Hub Hubs are used to connect multiple users to a single
physical device, which connects to the network. Hubs and concentrators act as repeaters by regenerating
the signal as it passes through them. Bridge Bridges are used to logically separate network segments
within the same network. They operate at the OSI data link layer (Layer 2) and are independent of higher-
layer protocols. Switch Switches are similar to bridges but usually have more ports. Switches provide a
unique network segment on each port, thereby separating collision domains. Today, network designers
are replacing hubs in their wiring closets with switches to increase their network performance and
bandwidth while protecting their existing wiring investments. Router Routers separate broadcast domains
and are used to connect different networks. Routers direct network traffic based on the destination
network layer address (Layer 3) rather than the workstation data link layer or MAC address.
Enterprise WAN Architecture A typical scenario will have Corporate Headquarter connected to Remote
Offices (Branch Offices, Retail Counters etc.) The Remote offices would be interconnected to the
corporate office through A dedicated network implemented over Leased-Lines and/or IPLC (International
Private Leased Circuit) (Microsoft, IBM, Cisco, Infosys etc.) A dedicated network implemented over VSAT
(Banks’ ATM Network, Reserve Bank network, BSE Online Trading, NSE Online Trading etc.) VPNs on the
Internet (Asian Paint Supplier Network, Bajaj Auto Retail Network etc.) A mix of above technologies The
backup links may provided through Redundant route through an alternate leased line Dial backup on ISDN
(The Head Office has a PRI connectivity and the Remote offices have BRI connectivity)
The Disaster Recovery site would be connected through multiple links to the main site VoIP infrastructure
may be available (A Call Manager will be placed at the Head Office and VoIP phones would be available in
all the offices) The NOC (Network Operation Center) may be at the Head Quarter (Infosys) or at a remote
site (Reliance, Microsoft) The NOC maintains, monitors and manages the network and application servers.
The Data exchange between offices may be through the servers at NOC to ensure security .
Firewall Rules IP Address of Source (Allow from Trusted Sources) IP Address of Destination (Allow to
trusted Destinations) Application Port Number (Allow Mail but restrict Telnet) Direction of Traffic (Allow
outgoing traffic but restrict incoming traffic)
Firewall Implementation Hardware Firewall: Dedicated Hardware Box (Cisco PIX, Netscreen ) Software
Firewall: Installable on a Server ( ) Host OSs (Windows XP/Linux) also provide software firewall features to
protect the host These days Firewalls provide IDS/IPS (Intrusion Detection System/Intrusion Prevention
System) services also. LINUX Firewall Use GUI (Applications ->System Settings-> Security Level) to activate
thefirewall Allow standard services and any specific port based application All other services and ports are
blocked
The Ways of Data Transmission. The Transmission is serial and parallel. Serial transmission is single
transmission path (i.e. bit by bit). In this type the transmission of information from computer to computer
or from computer to peripheral device one bit at a time. Parallel transmission is eight transmission paths
(i.e. byte by byte). Here, the transmission of information from computer to computer or from computer
to peripheral device, in which all the bits that make up the character are transmitted at the same time
over a multiline cable.Types of Data Transmission:1.Simplex communication: Here the Data travel in one
direction. (i.e. A node is always sending, and the other is always receiving data). E.g. TV, Radio,
Printer2.Half douplex: Data can travel in both directions but not at the same time (i.e. not
simultaneously). Fax, Mobile, telephone.3.Full douplex: Data travel in both directions at the same time.
E.g. Modem,Amplitude measures the strength of the signal or the height of the wave.Mode of Data
Transmission:Asynchronous Transmission:Clock of transmitter and receiver run independently.Slow
speeds (below 19.2 kbps).Its advantage: data could be sent whenever convenient for the
sender.Synchronous Transmission Sending and Receiving data must occur at carefully timed intervals.High
speed.Require more equipment. Modulation & Demodulation Modem = Modulation & Demodulation
Note: FM is frequency modulation, AM is AmplitudeModulation PM is Phase Modulation.
Hybrid topology is any combination of bus, star, and ring topology, for example, a star-bus configuration.
With a star-bus network, several hubs can be connected on a bus segment to several star topology
segments.In Hybrid Network Topology Internet Token Ring, Router, 10BaseT LAN and Switch can be used
within the same topology .More often than not, hybrid topology is commonplace in large networks
because it is allowing combining subnet works, each employing the least expensive, most efficient
topology.
Ethernet Standards:1. 10 Base T (10 mbps, Base band, over twisted pair cables).Max. Length of segment
is 100 meters. Can serve up to 1024 nodes of star pattern. 2. 10 Base2 (10 mbps, Base band, over Thin
net cable)Max. Length of segment is 200 meters.Can serve up to 30 nodes of bus pattern.3. 10 Base 5 (10
mbps, Base band Thick net cable)Max. Length of segment is 300 meters.Can serve up to 100 nodes of
bus pattern.4. 10 Base F (10 mbps, Base band, Fiber optics cable)Max. lengths of segment is 2
km.Unlimited numbers of nodes. 5. 100 Base Ethernet (100 mbps, Base band, UTP cables)Fast Ethernet.
Max. Length of segment is 100 meters. Can serve up to 300 nodes.
Fiber optic cable is a thin glass cable a little thicker than a human hair and surrounded by a plastic
coating. This cable transmits light signal rather than electrical signals, by using a laser as the light source.
The cable acts as pipe guiding the light from source to some destination. Greater bandwidth than the
copper based cabling.This type used different wave length (i.e. colors) of lights to carry signals through
the fiber care at the same time.Can support transmission over large distance. It possess high security (It
could not be hacked).Fiber optic cable construction - Core Cladding Coating Strengthing Fibers Cable
Jacket.So far, we have explained the main three types of transmission media and in fact, there other
types, these are as follows: IBM cables (Ti, T2, T3, T4). FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
oC3 SONET (Synchronous Optical NW) cables.
A router connects devices on LANs to devices on other LA-NS via WANS. Router does the readdressing1.
Able to route packets from one network to another.2. Work at network layer.3. Like the bridge transfer and
filter network traffic.Routing: is the act of moving information across an entire work from a source to a
destination. Brouters As a word suggests, it is a combination of bridge and router. Device operates at data-
link and network layers. It examines addresses of all the packets like bridge. And it also provides dual
functionality of router, decides how to reach specified destination.Repeaters: It is amplifying the singles to
make them stronger. Receive signal, clean it up, strength it, and pass it along. Used to extend the reach of a
network. Connect the network segments. Work at the Physical layer.Gateways: Communicate between
dissimilar networks.Work at transport layer.Gateways are dedicated computers uses to convert data
packets to, and from the protocols used by the networks they convert. Local area network gateways
Gateways are hardware devices that connect LAN to other dissimilar networks. They do this by translating
one network protocol into another. Therefore overcoming the incompatibilities of both the hardware and
software. Network Protocols-Computers need to agree on a set of traffic rules to successfully
communicate. Such set of rules known as protocols.Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP)A set of computer-to-computer communications protocols that encompass media access,packet
transport, session communications, file transfer, e-mail, and terminal emulation.TCP/IP is supported by a
very large number of hardware and software vendors and is available on many different computers from
PCs to mainframes.TCP = Transmission Control Protocol — This used to transfer Data, and works through
Transport layer. IP = Internet Protocol — This Carry Address and works through Network layer. IP address is
a unique number assigned to each machine uses the Internet. IP address is 32-bit number usually
expressed as 4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range O to 255 (known as octets) separated
by decimal points. To differ the client uses the internet, they use IP address.Address Classes: There are Five
different address classes of the IP addressing, which can be examining by the first 4 bits of the IP address.
Class A, Starting bit 0xxx Or 1-126 decimal, Class B, Starting bits l0xx Or 128-191 decimal,Class C, Starting
bits 110x Or 192-223 decimal Class D, Starting bits 1110 Or 224-239 decimal Class E, Starting bits 1111 Or
240-254 decimal. 127 decimals is used for loop back and for internet testing On a local machine. You can
test this: you should always be able to ping 127.0.0.1, which points yourself].
Class A, B, and C are the only classes which uses host computers through the net.(e.g. Labs computers.
Class D addresses used for multicasting.Class E addresses are reserved for future use. So, we should not
use these two classes for host address (note that host computer it’s your own computer through the
net).Subnet Masking: Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows identifying the network and node
parts of the address. The network bits are represented by the Is in the mask, and the node bits are
represented by the Os. Performing a bitwise logical AND operationbetween the IP address and the
subnet mask results in the Network Address or Number. There are Three classes of subnet masks:Class A
— 255.0.0.0 — 11111111 .OOOOOOOO.OOOOOO00.00 (each part 8 bits)[This means, in class A, we can
use 255*255*255= 16,581,375 as max. no. of computersthrough this net — In fact, this class is used for
the internet connections.Class B—255.25S00— [This means, in class B, we can use 255*255= 65,025 as
max. no. of computers through this nets Class C—255.255.255.0 — iiii111l.111l1[This means, in class C,
we can use 255 as max. no. of computers through this nets.Let us assume our ip University Server is
172.18.20.27 and the subnet mask is 255.255.0.0. Specify which class we are using, and how many
computers we can use through this net.Soln: 2^7 10101100 its class B because it starts by 10 therefore
network add is 172.18.0.0.
The TCP/IP Reference Model This model was first defined in (Cerf and Kahn, 1974). A later perspective is
given in(Leiner et al.., 1985). It can connect multiple networks in a seamless way. This came into existence
when existing protocols like radio and satellite networks had trouble interworking with them.The Internet
Layer.The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (InternetProtocol). The job
of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to. Packet routine is clearly the major
issue here in order to avoid congestion.The Transport Layer The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP
model is now usually called the transport layer. It is designed to allow peer entities in the source and
destination hosts to carry on a conversation. Two end-to-end protocol have been defined here. The first
one is TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) which allows a byte stream originating on one machine to be
delivered without error on any other machine in the internet. It also handles flow control to make sure that
a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more messages than it can handle.The second protocol is
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) which is a connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s
sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their own. It is widely used for one-shoot, client-server type
request-reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more important than accurate
delivery.The Application LayerOn top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher
level protocols like virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail(SMTP). The virtual
terminal protocol provides allows a user on one machine to log into a distant machine and work there. The
file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to another. Electronic mail
was originally just a kind of file transfer.
A comparison of the OSI and TCP reference model, The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in
common like the concept of both a stack of independent protocols. In both models the layers up through
and including the transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end network independent transport
service to processes wishing to communicate. These layers form the transport provider. The differences
between reference models of TCP/IP and OSI models are also a lot. For Example, the concepts of OSI model
are services, interfaces and protocols where in TCP/IP model didn’t clearly distinguish between these three
layers. The protocols in OSI are hidden than in TCP/IP model. The OSI model was devised before the
protocols were invented where in TCP/IP it is the reverse. TCP/IP has 4 layers where OSI has 7 layers.Both
have (inter) network, transport and application layers, but the other layers are different. OSI supports both
connection-oriented and connectionless in communication layer but only connection oriented in transport
layer. In TCP/IP it supports both connectionless and connection-oriented in transport layer but only one
mode(connectionless) in Network layer.
The problems of the TCP/IP reference model;1. The problems of TCP/IP were a lot. Such as, it doesn’t clearly
distinguish the concepts of service, interface and protocols as in software engineering differentiability
between the specification and implementation is required. So, this model is not suitable to be used in
building new Network using new technologies. 2. TCP/IP doesn’t fit any other protocol stack other than its
own.3. Host to Network layer isn’t really a layer but an interface and the distinction between
interface and layer is a crucial one in this field. 4. The TCP/IP model doesn’t distinguish between the
physical and data link layers. 5. In summary we can say that OSI modal is the most useful for studying
computer Network but OSI model protocols are not that popular. For TCP/IP reference model these
protocols and the others related to it are widely used but the model itself is almost nonexistent. So, these
are basically the similarities, dissimilarities, advantage and disadvantage of TCP/IP and OSI reference
models.
Net BIOS Extended User Interface(NETBEUI) a network device driver for the transport layer supplied with
Microsoft’s LAN Manager. NetBEUI= Net BIOS Extended user interface. It is a transport layer protocol. It is
small and fast. It does not support routing, so it is restricted to LAN. NetBEUI transfer data only but their
address use MAC address= Media Access Control. This address is build (i.e. the MAC address is part of the
Hardware). While the IP is the Internet address (i.e. external address + the NetBEUI is the internal
address).Note: The NW can be divided into: 1- Peer — To — Peer: Work as groupO 2-Client / Server
domain: (use IP address by using TCP) protocol and (use MAC address, by using netbeui protocol)
Internet Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX)IPX/SPX is used to transfer data between
the server and workstations in the network. IPXpackets are encapsulated and carried by the packets used
in Ethernet and the frames used in Token Ring networks. SPX is implemented on top of IPX to form a
transport-laYer interface. SPX guarantees delivery by having the destination node verify that the data was
received correctly. Internet Packet Exchange/Sequence Packet Exchange.IPX is corresponds to the IP
Protocol in the TCP/IP runs on network layer.SPX is corresponding to the TCP protocol in the TCP/IP runs
on transport layer.IXP/SPX protocol is assigned by novel network.IPXISPX is small, fast and routable unlike
netbeui Data Link Control (DLC)This is an international protocol which is bit- oriented, synchronous
protocol that provides error correction at the data-link layer.It is designed to provide access to either of
two specific types of hardware IBM main frames and Hewlett Packard (HP) printers.It needs only to be
installed on the devices that actually access mainframes or HP printers.
Xerox Network System (XNS)It is a set of protocols assigned for five models:Presentation and APP -
Applications Layer 4Session <- Control/Data Structure Layer 3Transport - Delivery Layer 2Network (-
Addressing Routing Layer 1Physical and data link - Physical transmission Layer 0
Advanced Program to Program Communication (APPC):APPC is set of IBM protocols used is IBM’S SNA
(System Network Arch.)network environment. It is used to enable application on different computers to
communicate directly. It is also known as LU (Logical Unit) the applications use the LU names to
communicate with other systems and programs on the network.It runs in the transport layer.
Apple Talk:This protocol based on the OSI Reference Model, which gives every Macintosh networking
capability. AppleTalk can run under several network operating systems, including Apple Computer’s
AppleShare, Novell NetWare for the Macintosh, and TOPS from Sun Microsystems. Apple Talk refers to the
apple hardware and software for Macintosh computers.It is a set of protocols that corresponds to the five-
or seven-layers models.Notes:1. There are different numbers of LAN technologies. Ethernet is the most
common, which runs at 10 million of bits per second (10 mbps). Also, LAN protocols represent the lowest
two layers of OSI (i.e. physical layer + data link layer). 2. WAN protocols function represent a gain the same
lowest two layers OSL There are different network protocols: 1. TCP/IP 2.NET BEU 3.IPC/SPX 4.DLC 5XNS
6.APPC 7. APPLE TALK VPN What’s the VPN?-VPN is a private connection between two systems or networks
over a shared or public network (typically Internet).-VPN technology lets an organization securely extend its
network services over the Internetto remote users, branch offices, and partner companies-In other words,
VPN turns the Internet into a simulated private WAN-VPN is very appealing since the Internet has a global
presence, and its use is now standard practice for most users and organizations.How VPN Works To use the
Internet as a private Wide Mea Network, organizations may have issues:-First, networks often communicate
using a variety of protocols, such as IPX but the Internet can oñly handle TCP/IP traffic. So, VPN may need to
provide a way to pass non-TCP/IP protocols from one network to another-Second data packets traveling the
Internet are transported in clear text. Therefore, anyone who can see Internet traffic can also read the data
contained in the packets. This is a problem if companies want to use the internet to pass important,
confidential business information.-VPN overcomes these obstacles by using a strategy called Tunneling.
Instead of packets crossing the Internet out in the open, data packets are fist encrypted for security, and
then encapsulated in an IP packet by the VPN and tunneled through the Internet. The VPN tunnel initiator on
the source network communicates with a VPN tunnel terminator on the destination network. The two agree
upon an encryption scheme, and the tunnel initiator encrypts the packet for security.Advantages of Using
VPN-VPN technology provides many benefits. Perhaps the biggest selling point for VPN is costsavings. One
can avoid having to purchase expensive leased lines to branch offices or partner companies. On another
cost-related note, you can evade having to invest in additional WAN equipment and instead leverage your
existing Internet installation-Another benefit of VPN is that it is an ideal way to handle mobile users.
Virtual LAN(VLAN)What’s the VALN?1. VLANs (Virtual LAN) enable network managers to group users
logically (based on functions, project teams or applications) rather than by physical location2. Traffic can
only be routed between VLANs3. VLANs provide the segmentation traditionally provided by physical
routers in LAN configuration. Advantages of Using VLANS Broadcast Control— Just as switches physically
isolate collision domains for attached hosts and only forward traffic out a particular port, VLANs provide
logical bridging domains that confine broadcast and multicast traffic to the VLANs. Security— If you do not
allow routing in a VLAN, no users outside of that VLAN can communicate with the users in the VLAN and
vice versa. This extreme level of security can be highly desirable for certain projects and applications.
Performance-You can assign users that require high performance or isolated networking to separate
VLANs. Internet Protocol-The Internet Protocol (IP) is a data-oriented protocol used for communicating
data across a packet-switched internetwork. IP is a network layer protocol in the internet protocol suite
and is encapsulated in a data link layer protocol(e.g Ethernet). As a lower layer protocol, IP provides the
service of communicable unique global addressing amongst computers. This implies that the data link layer
need not provide this service. Ethernet provides globally unique addresses except it is not globally
communicable (i.e. two arbitrarily chosen Ethernet devices will only be able to communicate if they are on
the same bus).