Blood

Cardiovascular system
1
Cardiovascular System
Main component
 Blood : fluid circulated

 Heart : pump (pulmonary & systemic circuits)
 Vessel : Artery & vein
Capillary
exchange
Heart: : Blood
Heart Blood vessel
(artery, arteriole) tissue
Lung
Systemic Blood vessel
circuit Pulmonary
circuit (Vein)
Heart
Excretion Aorta
(Kidney) (Artery) Lymphatic vessel
(Lymphatic system)
maria immaculata iwo, sf itb
Heart
Vessel
Blood
3
An overview of the
cardiovascular
system.
 Driven by the
pumping of the heart,
blood flows through
the pulmonary and
systemic circuits in
sequence.
 Each circuit begins

and ends at the heart
and contains arteries,
capillaries, and veins
4
• Functions of the blood
• Formation of Blood Cells
• Blood component:
• Blood elements:
• Red Blood Cells
– Oxygen Transport
– Carbon Dioxide Transport
– Anemia
– Blood Groups
• White Blood Cells
– Lymphocytes
– Monocytes
– Neutrophils
 Serum protein & lipids – Eosinophils
 Blood transfusion – Basophils
• Platelets
• Plasma
5
• If one takes a sample of blood,
treats it with an agent to
prevent clotting, and spins it in
a centrifuge,
– the red cells settle to the
bottom
– the white cells settle on top
of them forming the "buffy
coat".
– The fraction occupied by
the red cells is called the
hematocrit.
Blood fluid:
• Normally it is
approximately 45%. - Serum?
- Plasma?
 Values much lower
than this are a sign of
anemia.
6
7
Plasma
(46-63%)
formed
elements (37-
64%)
8
9
Formed elements Function&description Source
10
11
Formed elements Function&description Source Plasma Function Source
12
 Plasma protein 7%
Blood Plasma  Other solutes 1% Blood
 Water 92%
Plasma Formed
A sample of blood is (55%) elements
approximately 55% plasma (45%)
and 45% formed elements.
Plasma is approximately 92% water and contains

– proteins to regulate the osmotic pressure of
blood,
– protein for the clotting process and
– antibody proteins that work with the immune
system to protect your body from invading
pathogens.
– Electrolytes, hormones, nutrient and some blood
gases are transported in the blood plasma.
13
Plasma Constituent Major functions
Water Solvent for carrying other
substances (organic and
inorganic molecules, formed
elements, and heat)
Salts (eletrolytes):
Sodium, Potassium, Osmotic balance, pH buffering,
Calcium, Magnesium, and regulation of membrane
Chloride, Bicarbonate permeability
Plasma proteins
Major contribution to osmotic pressure of
- Albumin plasma, transport lipids, steroid, hormone
Essential component of blood clotting

- Fibrinogen system, can be converted to insoluble
fibrin
- Globulins Defense (antibodies), transport
ions, hormone, and lipid
Enzymes, proenzymes, hormones 14
- Regulatory proteins <1%)
Plasma Constituent Major functions
Other solutes
Electrolytes Normal extracellular fluids ion
composition essential for vital
cellular activities.
Ions contribute to osmotic pressure
of body fluids.
Major plasma electrolytes are Na+,
K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, bicarbonate,
phosphate, sulfate ¯¯
Organic nutrients Used for ATP production, growth,
and maintenance of cells; include
lipids (fatty acids, cholesterol,
glycerides), carbohydrates
(primarily glucose), and amino acids
Organic wastes Carried to sites of breakdown or 15

The Formed Elements
• The formed elements may be organized into three
group of cells:
- the red blood cells or erythrocytes,
- the white blood cells or leukocytes, and
- the platelets.
• When stained, each group is easy to identify with a

microscope:
- The red cells are erythrocytes,
- the stained cells are leukocytes, and
- the small cell fragments between the red and white
cells are platelets.
16
Blood elements
There are seven types of cells and cell fragments :
 red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes
 platelets or thrombocytes
 five kinds of white blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes
- Three kinds of granulocytes:
* neutrophils
* eosinophils
* basophils
- Two kinds of leukocytes without granules in their
cytoplasm (agranulocytes)
lymphocytes (B, T, and Natural Killer Cells/NK
cells)
monocytes  tissue  become Macrophage 17
Blood characteristic
 Bloodis a composite of fluid

connective tissue that flows
through the vessels of the vascular
system.
 In response to injury,
blood has the intrinsic ability to
change from a liquid to a gel so as to
clot and stop bleeding.
 Blood comprises cells and cell pieces that are
collectively called the formed elements.
 These cells are carried in an extracellular 18
Blood characteristic
 Blood inside the vein and artery

± 38 C (Higher than body temperature)
 Viscosity: 5 x ŋ water
 pH: 7.35-7.45 (± 7.4)
 Total Volume: ± 7% of body weight
• Man : 5 - 6 L
• Women: 4 - 5 L
19
Functions of the blood
Blood performs two major functions:
 transport through the body of
– oxygen and carbon dioxide
– food molecules (glucose, lipids, amino acids)
– ions (e.g., Na+, Ca2+ , HCO3−)
– wastes (e.g., urea)
– hormones
– heat
• defense of the body against infections and other
foreign materials.
All the WBCs participate in these defenses.
20
Blood Function
 Blood has many diverse functions, all relating to

supplying cells with essential materials and
maintaining the internal environment.
 Red blood cells transport respiratory gases to trillions
of cells in the body.
 The blood controls the chemical composition
of all interstitial fluid by regulating pH
and electrolyte levels.
 White blood cells are part of the immune system and
protect our body from microbes by producing
antibody molecules and phagocytizing foreign cells.
21
THE FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS
(HEMATOPOIESIS)
• All the various types of blood cells are produced in the bone
marrow (some 1011 of them each day in an adult human!).
• arise from a single type of cell called a
hematopoietic stem cell — an "adult"
multipotent stem cell.
• These stem cells
– are very rare (only about one in 10,000 bone marrow
cells);
– are attached (probably by adherens junctions) to
osteoblasts lining the inner surface of bone cavities;
– express a cell-surface protein designated CD34;
– produce, by mitosis, 22
Which path is taken is regulated by the need for more of that type of blood
cell which is, in turn, controlled by appropriate cytokines and/or
hormones.
Examples:
• Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is the major cytokine in
stimulating bone marrow stem cells to start down the
path leading to the various lymphocytes (mostly
B cells and T cells).
• Erythropoietin (EPO), produced by the kidneys,
enhances the production of red blood cells (RBCs).
• Thrombopoietin (TPO), assisted by Interleukin-11
(IL-11), stimulates the production of megakaryocytes.
Their fragmentation produces platelets.
23
• Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), as
its name suggests, sends cells down the path leading to both those
cell types. In due course, one path or the other is taken.
– Under the influence of granulocyte colony-
stimulating factor (G-CSF), they differentiate into
neutrophils.
– Further stimulated by interleukin-5 (IL-5) they
develop into eosinophils.
– Interleukin-3 (IL-3) participates in the differentiation
of most of the white blood cells but plays a
particularly prominent role in the formation of
basophils (responsible for some allergies).
– Stimulated by macrophage colony-stimulating
factor (M-CSF) the granulocyte/macrophage
progenitor cells differentiate into
monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells (DCs).
24
Hemocytoblasts Lymphoid
Myeloid stem cells stem cells
Pro-
genitor
cells
blast cells

26
Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
The most numerous type in the blood.
Women average about 4.8 million of

these cells per cubic millimeter (mm3;
which is the same as a microliter [µl]) of blood.
 Men average about 5.4 x 106 per µl.
These values can vary over quite a range

depending on such factors as health and
altitude.
 Peruvians living at 18,000 feet may
have as many as 8.3 x 106 RBCs per µl.
27
• Red blood cells (abbreviated RBCs, also called

erythrocytes from erythro = red + cyte = cell) are
- continually produced in bone marrow
- recycled in spleen.
• In mature form they lack nuclei and most cytoplasmic
structures;
• they are little more than discoid, flexible bags of
hemoglobin.
28
• RBC precursors mature in the bone marrow closely

attached to a macrophage.
• They manufacture hemoglobin until it accounts for
some 90% of the dry weight of the cell.
• The nucleus is squeezed out of the cell and is
ingested by the macrophage.
• This scanning electron micrograph
(courtesy of Dr. Marion J. Barnhart)
shows the characteristic
biconcave shape of red blood cells 
29
• Thus RBCs are terminally differentiated; that is, they

can never divide.
• They live about 120 days and then are ingested by
phagocytic cells in the liver and spleen.
• Most of the iron in their hemoglobin is reclaimed for
reuse. The remainder of the heme portion of the
molecule is degraded into bile pigments and excreted
by the liver.
• Some 3 million RBCs die and are scavenged by the liver each
second.
• Red blood cells are responsible for the transport of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
30
Oxygen Transport
• In adult humans the hemoglobin (Hb) molecule

consists of four polypeptides:
– two alpha (α) chains of 141 amino acids and
– two beta (β) chains of 146 amino acids
– Each of these is attached the prosthetic group heme.
• There is one atom of iron at the center of each

heme.
• One molecule of oxygen can bind to each heme.
31
• The reaction is reversible.
• Under the conditions of lower temperature, higher
pH, and increased oxygen pressure in the
capillaries of the lungs, the reaction proceeds to
the right.
– The purple-red deoxygenated hemoglobin of the venous
blood becomes the bright-red oxyhemoglobin of the
arterial blood.
• Under the conditions of higher temperature, lower
pH, and lower oxygen pressure in the tissues, the
reverse reaction is promoted and oxyhemoglobin
gives up its oxygen. 32
Carbon Dioxide Transport
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with water forming

carbonic acid, which dissociates into a hydrogen ion
(H+) and a bicarbonate ions:
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H+ + HCO3−
• 95% of the CO2 generated in the tissues is carried in
the red blood cells:
– It probably enters (and leaves) the cell by diffusing through
transmembrane channels in the plasma membrane.
(One of the proteins that forms the channel is the D antigen
that is the most important factor in the Rh system of blood
groups.)
33
 Only about 5% of the CO2 generated in the tissues

dissolves directly in the plasma.
(A good thing, too: if all the CO2 we make were carried
this way, the pH of the blood would drop from its
normal 7.4 to an instantly-fatal 4.5!)
• When the red cells reach the lungs, these reactions are
reversed and CO2 is released to the air of the alveoli.
34
 Once inside, about one-half of the CO2 is directly

bound to hemoglobin (at a site different from the
one that binds oxygen).
• The rest is converted — following the equation above
— by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase into
– bicarbonate ions that diffuse back out into the plasma and
– hydrogen ions (H+) that bind to the protein portion of the
hemoglobin (thus having no effect on pH).
35
Recycling of red blood cell components 36
Anemia
• Anemia is a shortage of RBCs and/or the amount of
hemoglobin in them.
• Anemia has many causes.
One of the most common is an inadequate intake of
iron in the diet.
Blood Groups
• Red blood cells have surface antigens that differ
between people and that create the so-called blood
groups such as the ABO system and the Rh system.
37
The ABO Blood Groups
• The ABO blood groups were the first to be discovered

(in 1900) and are the most important in assuring safe
blood transfusions.
• The table shows the four ABO phenotypes ("blood
groups") present in the human population and the
genotypes that give rise to them.
• When red blood cells carrying one or both antigens are
exposed to the corresponding antibodies, they
agglutinate; that is, clump together.
• People usually have antibodies against those red cell
antigens that they lack.
38
The ABO Blood Groups
Blood Antigens on Antibodies Genotypes

Group RBCs in Serum
A A Anti-B AA or AO
B B Anti-A BB or BO
AB A and B Neither AB
O Neither Anti-A and OO
Anti-B
39
Other blood groups
• Several other blood group antigens have been
identified in humans.
– Some examples: MN, Duffy, Lewis, Kell.
• They, too, may sometimes cause

– transfusion reactions and even
– hemolytic disease of the newborn
• in cases where there is no ABO or Rh incompatibility.
40
• Human red blood cells before (left) and after (right) adding
serum containing anti-A antibodies.
– The agglutination reaction reveals the presence of the A
antigen on the surface of the cells.
41
The Rh System (antigen D)
• Rh antigens are transmembrane proteins with loops exposed at

the surface of red blood cells.
• They appear to be used for the transport of carbon dioxide
and/or ammonia across the plasma membrane.
• They are named for the rhesus monkey in which they were first
discovered.
• There are a number of Rh antigens.
• Red cells that are "Rh positive" express the one designated D.
• About 15% of the population have no RhD antigens and thus
are "Rh negative".
• The major importance of the Rh system for human health is to
avoid the danger of RhD incompatibility between mother and
fetus.
42
The Rh System
• During birth, there is often a leakage of the baby's red blood cells
into the mother's circulation.
• If the baby is Rh positive (having inherited the trait from its father)
and the mother Rh-negative, these red cells will cause her to
develop antibodies against the RhD antigen.
• The antibodies, usually of the IgG class, do not cause
any problems for that child, but can cross the placenta
and attack the red cells of a subsequent Rh+ fetus.
• This destroys the red cells producing anemia and jaundice.
• The disease, called erythroblastosis fetalis or hemolytic disease of
the newborn, may be so severe as to kill the fetus or even the
newborn infant.
• It is an example of an antibody-mediated cytotoxicity
disorder.
43
White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
• White blood cells are much less

numerous than red (the ratio
between the two is around 1:700),
• have nuclei,
• participate in protecting the body from infection,
• consist of lymphocytes and monocytes with
relatively clear cytoplasm, and three types of
granulocytes, whose cytoplasm is filled with
granules.
44
White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
• White blod cells (abbreviated WBCs, also called leukocytes from
leuko = white + cyte = cell) comprise several distinct cell types,
– neutrophils,
– eosinophils, Granulocytes/
– basophils, Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
– lymphocytes
Agranulocytes/
– monocytes.
Mononuclear leukocytes
Certain developmental and morphological similarities permit the first three

these cells to be usefully grouped together as granulocytes or
polymorphonuclear leukocytes.
– The latter two types are then categorized as mononuclear leukocytes.
45
Lymphocytes
• There are several kinds of lymphocytes (although they all look
alike under the microscope), each with different functions to
perform .
• The most common types of lymphocytes are
– B lymphocytes (B cells). These are responsible for making
antibodies.
– T lymphocytes (T cells). There are several subsets of these:
• inflammatory T cells that recruit macrophages and
neutrophils to the site of infection or other tissue damage
• cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) that kill virus-infected and,
perhaps, tumor cells
• helper T cells that enhance the production of antibodies by
B cells
• Suppressor T cells
- NK cell 46
Lymphocytes
• Although bone marrow is the ultimate

source of lymphocytes, the lymphocytes that will become T cells
migrate from the bone marrow to the thymus where they mature
under the influence of thymic hormones
• Both B cells and T cells also take up residence in lymph

nodes, the spleen and other tissues where they
– encounter antigens;
– continue to divide by mitosis;
– mature into fully functional cells.
47
Lymphocytes
 are small cells,

 7-9 μm in diameter in blood smears, and
 are the second most common white blood cell type,
 comprising about 30 % of the circulating leukoytes.
 have a round heterochromatic (deeply staining)
nucleus surrounded by a relatively thin rim of
cytoplasm.
48
Monocytes
• Monocytes leave the blood and become
macrophages and dendritic cells.
 Macrophages are large, phagocytic cells that engulf foreign
material (antigens) that enter the body dead and dying cells of
the body.
Mononuclear leukocytes comprise both lymphocytes

and monocytes.
Both cell types work together in immune
responses.
This scanning electron micrograph (courtesy of Drs. Jan M. Orenstein
and Emma Shelton) shows a single macrophage
surrounded by several lymphocytes.
49
Monocytes
• Monocytes are the largest of the leukocytes, and constitute about
5 % of the WBC population in peripheral blood.
• In blood smears, their nuclei are typically indented, sometimes
deeply so, with a kidney-bean or bent-horseshoe shape.
• Monocytes belong to the same functional population as tissue
macrophages.
• Monocytes/macrophages engulf and digest foreign
microorganisms, dead or worn-out cells, and other tissue debris.
They interact closely with lymphocytes to recognize and destroy
foreign substances.
• Most ordinary connective tissues contain resident macrophages
which normally remain at rest in the tissue.
• But the normal number of fixed macrophages is supplemented
during inflammation by the influx of many monocytes from the
blood. 50
Neutrophils
• The most abundant of the WBCs.
• Neutrophils squeeze through the capillary walls and into
infected tissue where they kill the invaders (e.g., bacteria) and
then engulf the remnants by phagocytosis.
• This is a never-ending task, even in healthy people: Our
throat, nasal passages, and colon harbor vast numbers of
bacteria. Most of these are commensals, and do us no harm.
But that is because neutrophils keep them in check.
This photomicrograph shows a single neutrophil

surrounded by red blood cells
51
Neutrophils
However,
– heavy doses of radiation
– chemotherapy
– and many other forms of stress
can reduce the numbers of neutrophils so that
formerly harmless bacteria begin to proliferate.
 The resulting opportunistic infection can be
life-threatening.
52
Neutrophils
• Neutrophils (also called neutrophilic granulocytes,

or polymorphonuclear neutrophilic leukocytes,
PMNs, or polys) are the most numerous of the
leukocytes, about 60% of the white blood cell count.
• They are about 12 μm in diameter in blood smear
preparations (about twice the size of red blood cells).
• Too many neutrophils is called neutrophilia;
53
Neutrophils
• Neutrophils take their name from the staining properties of their
cytoplasmic lysosomal granules (vesicles containing stored
lysosomal enzymes). These granules are neutrophilic, meaning
they show no special affinity for either acidic or basic stains but
are stained mildly by both.
– This is in contrast to the specific granules of eosinophils,
which stain red with acidic stains such as eosin, and those of
basophils, which stain with basic stains.
 The nuclei of mature neutrophils are elongated and pinched
into several distinct lobes, hence the term
polymorphonuclear.
 Immature neutrophils have a band-shaped nucleus and are
hence sometimes called "bands".
 Mature neutrophils, in contrast, are called "segs", in reference
to the segmented nucleus. 54
Eosinophils
• Eosinophils (eosinophilic granulocytes)
normally comprise less than two to
four percent of the peripheral leukocytes.
• Their specific granules are intense eosinophilic (stained by eosin),
hence the name.
• Eosinophils are about the same size as neutrophils.
• Their nuclei are typically band shaped (elongated) or two-lobed.
• The number of eosinophils in the blood is normally quite low (0–
450/µl).
• However, their numbers increase sharply in certain diseases,
especially infections by parasitic worms.
• Eosinophils are cytotoxic, releasing the contents of their granules
on the invader.
55
Eosinophils
56
Basophils
• Basophils (basophilic granulocytes) normally

comprise less than 1 % of the peripheral
leukocytes.
• Their specific granules are intense basophilic,
hence the name.
• Like eosinophils, basophils are similar in size to neutrophils.
• Their nuclei may be band shaped or segmented.
• Basophils seem to be functionally similar to tissue mast cells,
involved in triggering inflammation.
57
Basophils
• The number of basophils also increases during infection.
• Basophils leave the blood and accumulate at the site of infection
or other inflammation.
• There they discharge the contents of their granules, releasing a
variety of mediators such as:
– histamine
– serotonin
– prostaglandins and leukotrienes
which increase the blood flow to the area and in other ways add
to the inflammatory process.
The mediators released by basophils also play an important part

in some allergic responses such as
– hay fever and
– an anaphylactic response to insect stings.
58
Platelets
• Platelets are cell fragments produced from
megakaryocytes.
• Blood normally contains 150,000–450,000 per µL or mm3.
This number is normally maintained by a homeostatic (negative-
feedback) mechanism.
• If this value should drop much below 50,000/µl, there is a
danger of uncontrolled bleeding because of the essential role
that platelets have in blood clotting.
Some causes:
– certain drugs and herbal remedies;
– autoimmunity.
59
Platelets
• When blood vessels are cut or damaged, the loss of
blood from the system must be stopped before shock
and possible death occur.
This is accomplished by solidification of the blood, a
process called coagulation or clotting.
• A blood clot consists of
– a plug of platelets enmeshed in a
– Network of insoluble fibrin molecules.
 Please learn by yourself Details of the clotting process!

maria immaculata iwo, sf itb 60
Plasma
• Plasma is the straw-colored liquid in which the blood
cells are suspended.
• Composition of blood plasma
Component Percent
Water ~92
Proteins 6–8
Salts 0.8
Lipids 0.6
Glucose (blood sugar) 0.1
61
Plasma
• Plasma transports materials needed by cells and materials that
must be removed from cells:
– various ions (Na+, Ca2+, HCO3−, etc.
– glucose and traces of other sugars
– amino acids
– other organic acids
– cholesterol and other lipids
– hormones
– urea and other wastes
Most of these materials are in transit from a place where they are added to the blood (a
"source")
– exchange organs like the intestine
– depots of materials like the liver
to places ("sinks") where they will be removed from the blood.
– every cell
– exchange organs like the kidney, and skin.
62
Serum Proteins
• Proteins make up 6–8% of the blood. They are about
equally divided between serum albumin and a great
variety of serum globulins.
• After blood is withdrawn from a vein and allowed to
clot, the clot slowly shrinks. As it does so, a clear fluid
called serum is squeezed out. Thus:
• Serum is blood plasma without fibrinogen and other
clotting factors.
maria immaculata iwo, sf itb 63

Serum Proteins
• Serum albumin
– is made in the liver
– binds many small molecules
for transport through the blood
– helps maintain the
osmotic pressure of the blood
The other proteins are the various serum globulins (&
fibrinogen)
64
Serum Proteins
Serum globulin
• They migrate in the order
– alpha globulins (e.g., the proteins that transport
thyroxine and retinol [vitamin A])
– beta globulins (e.g., the iron-transporting protein transferrin)
– gamma globulins.
• Gamma globulins are the least negatively-charged serum proteins.
(They are so weakly charged, in fact, that some are swept in the flow of
buffer back toward the negative electrode.)
• Most antibodies are gamma globulins.
– Therefore gamma globulins become more abundant following
infections or immunizations.
65
Serum Lipids
• Because of their relationship to cardiovascular disease, the
analysis of serum lipids has become an important health
measure.
• The table shows the range of typical values as well as the values above (or
below) which the subject may be at increased risk of developing
atherosclerosis.
LIPID Typical values (mg/dl) Desirable

(mg/dl)
Cholesterol (total) 170–210 <200
LDL cholesterol 60–140 <100
HDL cholesterol 35–85 >40
Triglycerides 40–160 <160

66
• Total cholesterol is the sum of
– HDL cholesterol
– LDL cholesterol and
– 20% of the triglyceride value
• Note that
– high LDL values are bad, but
– high HDL values are good.
• Using the various values, one can calculate a

cardiac risk ratio = total cholesterol divided by HDL cholesterol
• A cardiac risk ratio greater than 7 is considered a

warning.
67
Congenital
disorders: Trauma
 Thallasemias
 Hemorrhagic
Nutritional disorders  Sickle cell anemia
anemia
 Hemophilia
 Iron deficiency anemia  Aplastic anemia
 Iron loading
 Pernicious anemia Infection
 Vit K deficiency
 Bacteremia
 Viremia
Secondary disorders Blood  Septicemia
 Urinary system: disorders  Puerperal fever
 Erythrocytosis  Malaria
 Hemolytic anemia
 Immune problems:
 Hemolytic disease
of the newborn Tumors Degenerative
 Leukemia disorders:
 Myeloid  Excessive
 Lymphoid coagulation 68
• Blood Transfusions
• "whole blood“ were transfused directly into patients

(e.g., to replace blood lost by trauma or during surgery).
• Most were further fractionated into components,
including:
– RBCs.
When refrigerated these can be used for up to 42 days.
– platelets.
These must be stored at room temperature and thus can
be saved for only 5 days.
– plasma.
This can be frozen and stored for up to a year.
69
Ensuring the safety of donated blood
• A variety of infectious agents can be present in

blood.
– viruses (e.g., HIV-1, hepatitis B and C, HTLV, West Nile virus
– bacteria like the spirochete of syphilis
– protozoans like the agents of malaria and babesiosis
– prions (e.g., the agent of variant Crueutzfeldt-Jakob
disease)
• and could be transmitted to recipients.
• To minimize these risks,
– donors are questioned about their possible exposure to
these agents;
– each unit of blood is tested for a variety of infectious
agents.
70
• Most of these tests are performed with enzyme
immunoassays (EIA) and detect antibodies against the agents.
However, it takes a period of time for the immune system to
produce antibodies following infection, and during this period
("window"), infectious virus is present in the blood. For this
reason, blood is now also checked for the presence of the
RNA of these RNA viruses:
– HIV-1
– hepatitis C
– West Nile virus
– by the so-called nucleic acid-amplification test (NAT).
71

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Cardiovascular system

 Blood : fluid circulated

 Each circuit begins

Plasma is approximately 92% water and contains

Essential component of blood clotting

Organic wastes Carried to sites of breakdown or 15

• When stained, each group is easy to identify with a

 Bloodis a composite of fluid

 Blood inside the vein and artery

 Blood has many diverse functions, all relating to

maria immaculata iwo, sf itb

Women average about 4.8 million of

 Men average about 5.4 x 106 per µl.

These values can vary over quite a range

• Red blood cells (abbreviated RBCs, also called

• RBC precursors mature in the bone marrow closely

• Thus RBCs are terminally differentiated; that is, they

• In adult humans the hemoglobin (Hb) molecule

• There is one atom of iron at the center of each

 Carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with water forming

 Only about 5% of the CO2 generated in the tissues

 Once inside, about one-half of the CO2 is directly

• The ABO blood groups were the first to be discovered

Blood Antigens on Antibodies Genotypes

• They, too, may sometimes cause

• Rh antigens are transmembrane proteins with loops exposed at

• White blood cells are much less

Certain developmental and morphological similarities permit the first three

• Although bone marrow is the ultimate

• Both B cells and T cells also take up residence in lymph

 are small cells,

Mononuclear leukocytes comprise both lymphocytes

This photomicrograph shows a single neutrophil

• Neutrophils (also called neutrophilic granulocytes,

• Too many neutrophils is called neutrophilia;

• Basophils (basophilic granulocytes) normally

The mediators released by basophils also play an important part

 Please learn by yourself Details of the clotting process!

maria immaculata iwo, sf itb 63

LIPID Typical values (mg/dl) Desirable

Cholesterol (total) 170–210 <200

LDL cholesterol 60–140 <100

HDL cholesterol 35–85 >40

Triglycerides 40–160 <160

• Using the various values, one can calculate a

• A cardiac risk ratio greater than 7 is considered a

• "whole blood“ were transfused directly into patients

• A variety of infectious agents can be present in

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