OUTLINE

 Introduction
 History
 Special properties of RF current
 Radio Communication
 Frequency Bands and their applications
 In Medicine
 Effects on human body
 As a weapon
 Measurement
 Radio frequency drying
 Radio Frequency heating of foods

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 OUTLINE
 Communication systems
Analog Modulation 1. AM
2. FM
Digital Modulation 1. ASK
2. FSK
3. Modems

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 Introduction
 The term Radio frequency refers to electromagnetic radiation in the
range of frequencies lower than microwaves. Radio waves at these
frequencies have been found useful for long-range communications.
 Radio frequency (RF) is any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies
that lie in the range extending from around 3 kHz to 300 GHz, which
include those frequencies used for communications or radar signals.
RF usually refers to electrical rather than mechanical oscillations.
However, mechanical RF systems do exist.
 Although radio frequency is a rate of oscillation, the term "radio
frequency" or its abbreviation "RF" are used as a synonym for radio –
i.e., to describe the use of wireless communication, as opposed to
communication via electric wires. Examples include:
1. Radio-frequency identification
2. ISO/IEC 14443-2 Radio frequency power and signal interface

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 History
 The early history of radio is the history of technology that produce and
use radio instruments that use radio waves. Radio development began as
"wireless telegraphy". Later radio history increasingly involves matters
of broadcasting.
 James Clerk Maxwell showed in theoretical and mathematical form in
1864 that electromagnetic waves could propagate through free space.
 In 1888 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz was able to conclusively prove transmitted
airborne electromagnetic waves in an experiment confirming Maxwell's
theory of electromagnetism.
 In 1892 the physicist William Crookes wrote on the possibilities of
wireless telegraphy based on Hertzian waves.
 1894 the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi built the first complete,
commercially successful wireless telegraphy system based on airborne
Hertzian waves (radio transmission.

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 Special properties of RF current
 The energy in an RF current can radiate off a conductor into space
as electromagnetic waves (radio waves); this is the basis of radio technology.
 RF current does not penetrate deeply into electrical conductors but tends to flow
along their surfaces; this is known as the skin effect. For this reason, when the
human body comes in contact with high power RF currents it can cause
superficial but serious burns called RF burns (Radiation burns).
 RF currents applied to the body often do not cause the painful sensation
of electric shock as do lower frequency currents. This is because the current
changes direction too quickly to trigger depolarization of nerve membranes.
 RF current can easily ionize air, creating a conductive path through it. This
property is exploited by "high frequency" units used in electric arc welding,
which use currents at higher frequencies than power distribution uses.
 Another property is the ability to appear to flow through paths that contain
insulating material, like the dielectric insulator of a capacitor.
 When conducted by an ordinary electric cable, RF current has a tendency to
reflect from discontinuities in the cable such as connectors and travel back down
the cable toward the source, causing a condition called standing waves.
Therefore, RF current must be carried by specialized types of cable
called transmission line.
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 Radio
 To receiveCommunication
radio signals an antenna must be used.
 Since the antenna will pick up thousands of radio signals at a time,
a radio tuner is necessary to tune into a particular frequency (or
frequency range). This is typically done via a resonator. The resonator
amplifies oscillations within a particular frequency band, while reducing
oscillations at other frequencies outside the band.
 Another method to isolate a particular radio frequency is
by oversampling (which gets a wide range of frequencies) and picking out
the frequencies of interest, as done in software defined radio.
 The distance over which radio communications is useful depends
significantly on things other than wavelength, such as transmitter power,
receiver quality, type, size, and height of antenna, mode of transmission,
noise, and interfering signals.
 Ground waves, tropospheric scatter and skywaves can all achieve greater
ranges than line-of-sight propagation. The study of radio
propagation allows estimates of useful range to be made.
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 Frequency Bands and their
applications

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 In Medicine
 For minimally invasive surgeries using radiofrequency ablation including
the treatment of sleep apnea.
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses radio frequency waves to
generate images of the human body.
 Radio frequencies at non-ablation energy levels are sometimes used as a
form of cosmetic treatment that can tighten skin, reduce fat (lipolysis), or
promote healing.
 RF diathermy is a medical treatment that uses RF induced heat as a form
of physical or occupational therapy and in surgical procedures. It is
commonly used for muscle relaxation.
 It is also a method of heating tissue electromagnetically for therapeutic
purposes in medicine.
 Pulsed electromagnetic field therapy (PEMF) is a medical treatment that
purportedly helps to heal bone tissue reported in a recent NASA study.

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 Effects on the
 Extremely low frequency RF
Human Body
High-power extremely low frequency RF with electric field levels in the low
kV/m range are known to induce perceivable currents within the human body
that create an annoying tingling sensation. These currents will typically flow to
ground through a body contact surface such as the feet, or arc to ground where
the body is well insulated.
 Microwaves
Long-term human exposure to high-levels of microwaves is recognized to
cause cataracts according to experimental animal studies and epidemiological
studies. The mechanism is unclear but may include changes in heat sensitive
enzymes that normally protect cell proteins in the lens. Another mechanism that
has been advanced is direct damage to the lens from pressure waves induced in
the aqueous humor.
High-power exposure to microwave RF is known to create a range of effects from
lower to higher power levels, ranging from unpleasant burning sensation on the
skin and microwave auditory effect, to extreme pain at the mid-range, to physical
burning and blistering of skin and internals at high power levels.

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  General RF exposure
The 1999 revision of Canadian Safety Code 6 recommended electric
field limits of 100 kV/m for pulsed EMF to prevent air breakdown
and spark discharges, mentioning rationale related to auditory
effect and energy-induced unconsciousness in rats.

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 As a Weapon
 A heat ray is an RF harassment device that makes use of microwave
radio frequencies to create an unpleasant heating effect in the upper
layer of the skin.
 A publicly known heat ray weapon called the Active Denial
System was developed by the US military as an experimental weapon
to deny the enemy access to an area.
 A death ray is a weapon that delivers heat ray electromagnetic
energy at levels that injure human tissue.

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Measurement
 The unit volts per meter (V/m) is used for the electric component,
and the unit amperes per meter (A/m) is used for the magnetic
component.
 Units are used to provide information about the levels of electric
and magnetic field strength at a measurement location.
 Commonly used unit for characterizing an RF electromagnetic field
is power density. Power density is most accurately used when the
point of measurement is far enough away from the RF emitter to be
located in what is referred to as the far field zone of the radiation
pattern

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 Radio Frequency Drying
 A basic schematic of a Radio Frequency dryer is shown below. The
dryer receives standard power (i.e. 480V, 60 Hz) through the
Switchgear. In the Power Supply section, line voltage is stepped up
to high voltage AC through a transformer and then changed to high
voltage DC through rectifiers. In the Oscillator section, high
voltage DC is changed to high frequency, high voltage Radio
Frequency energy and transmitted to the applicator or electrodes
where it is applied to the work. All of this is controlled by a modern
control system.

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  The key to effective application of Radio Frequency energy for
drying is the right applicator, or electrode design. Traditionally,
heating was accomplished by creating a uniform electric field
between two parallel plates. This approach is capable of heating
thicker materials uniformly because a high voltage gradient can be
established in the material. However, it does not work well for thin
materials such as webs. In order to establish a high voltage
gradient in a thin web material, the plates must be very close
together which can cause arcing between the plates.

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 Radio Frequency heating of foods
 Radio frequency (RF) heating is a promising technology for food
applications because of the associated rapid and uniform heat
distribution, large penetration depth and lower energy
consumption. Radio frequency heating has been successfully
applied for drying, baking and thawing of frozen meat and in meat
processing. However, its use in continuous pasteurization and
sterilization of foods is rather limited.
 During RF heating, heat is generated within the product due to
molecular friction resulting from oscillating molecules and ions
caused by the applied alternating electric field. RF heating is
influenced principally by the dielectric properties of the product
when other conditions are kept constant.

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 the blocks common to all communication
systems

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 Remember the components of a communications system:
 Input transducer: The device that converts a physical signal from
source to an electrical, mechanical or electromagnetic signal more
suitable for communicating
 Transmitter: The device that sends the transduced signal
 Transmission channel: The physical medium on which the signal is
carried
 Receiver: The device that recovers the transmitted signal from the
channel
 Output transducer: The device that converts the received signal
back into a useful quantity

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 Analog Modulation
 The purpose of a communication system is to transmit information
signals (baseband signals) through a communication channel .
 The term baseband is used to designate the band of frequencies
representing the original signal as delivered by the input transducer
For example, the voice signal from a microphone is a baseband signal,
and contains frequencies in the range of 0-3000 Hz.
 The “hello” wave is a baseband signal:

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  Since this baseband signal must be transmitted through a communication
channel such as air using electromagnetic waves, an appropriate procedure is
needed to shift the range of baseband frequencies to other frequency ranges
suitable for transmission, and a corresponding shift back to the original
frequency range after reception. This is called the process of modulation and
demodulation
 Remember the radio spectrum:

 For example, an AM radio system transmits electromagnetic waves with

frequencies of around a few hundred kHz (MF band)
 The FM radio system must operate with frequencies in the range of 88108 MHz
(VHF band)
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  Since the baseband signal contains frequencies in the audio frequency range
(3 kHz), some form of frequency-band shifting must be employed for the
radio system to operate satisfactorily .
 This process is accomplished by a device called a modulator
 The transmitter block in any communications system contains the
modulator device .
 The receiver block in any communications system contains the demodulator
device .
 The modulator modulates a carrier wave (the electromagnetic wave) which
has a frequency that is selected from an appropriate band in the radio
spectrum.
1. For example, the frequency of a carrier wave for FM can be chosen
from the VHF band of the radio spectrum.
2. For AM, the frequency of the carrier wave may be chosen to be
around a few hundred kHz (from the MF band of the radio spectrum) .
 The demodulator extracts the original baseband signal from the received
modulated signal To Summarize:
1. Modulation is the process of impressing a low-frequency
information signal (baseband signal )onto a higher frequency carrier signal.
2. Modulation is done to bring information signals up to the Radio
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Frequency (or higher) signal
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Basic analog communications system

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 Types of Analog Modulation
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
 Amplitude modulation is the process of varying the amplitude of a
carrier wave in proportion to the amplitude of a baseband signal.
The frequency of the carrier remains constant.
Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Frequency modulation is the process of varying the frequency of a
carrier wave in proportion to the amplitude of a baseband signal.
The amplitude of the carrier remains constant.
Phase Modulation (PM)
 Another form of analog modulation technique which we will not
discuss
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
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Amplitude Modulation

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Frequency Modulation

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 AM vs. FM
 AM requires a simple circuit, and is very easy to generate. It is
simple to tune, and is used in almost all short wave broadcasting.
 The area of coverage of AM is greater than FM (longer wavelengths
,lower frequencies) However, it is quite inefficient, and is
susceptible to static and other forms of electrical noise.
 The main advantage of FM is its audio quality and immunity to
noise. Most forms of static and electrical noise are naturally AM,
and an FM receiver will not respond to AM signals.
 The audio quality of a FM signal increases as the frequency
deviation increases (deviation from the center frequency), which is
why FM broadcast stations use such large deviation.
 The main disadvantage of FM is the larger bandwidth it requires

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  The previous section presented analog communication systems that
transmit information in analog form using Amplitude or Frequency
modulation.
 Digital communication systems also employ modulation
techniques, some of which include: 1. Amplitude Shift Keying
2. Frequency Shift Keying
3. Phase Shift Keying

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 Some Types of Digital Modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 The most basic (binary) form of ASK involves the process of switching
the carrier either on or off, in correspondence to a sequence of digital
pulses that constitute the information signal. One binary digit is
represented by the presence of a carrier, the other binary digit is
represented by the absence of a carrier. Frequency remains fixed .
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 The most basic (binary) form of FSK involves the process of varying
the frequency of a carrier wave by choosing one of two frequencies
(binary FSK) in correspondence to a sequence of digital pulses that
constitute the information signal. Two binary digits are represented
by two frequencies around the carrier frequency. Amplitude remains
fixed
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 Another form of digital modulation technique which we will not
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Amplitude Shift keying

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Frequency Shift Key

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 Modems
 Modems are devices used to enable the transfer of data over the public
switched telephone network (PSTN).
 The name modem comes from the name MOulator- DEModulator which
describes the function the modem performs to transfer digital information
over an analog network .
 The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded
to reproduce the original digital data. Primarily used to communicate via
telephone lines, modems can be used over any means of transmitting
analog signals.
 There are many kinds of modems available today:
1. Internal modem: A modem card in your computer that is integrated
within the system. Less expensive than external modems. Disadvantage
is that you need to access inside the computer to replace the modem.
2. External modem: A device that connects externally to your computer
through a serial port. External power supply does not drain power from
the computer. Modem activity can easily be observed. More expensive
than an internal modem
Source: http://Wikipedia.com
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 DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) :
 A high-speed data service that works over conventional telephone
lines and is typically offered by telephone companies. It does not
occupy the phone line-you can still talk on the phone. Speed is much
higher than regular modem
Cable modem:
 A device that connects to the existing cable feed and to an Ethernet
network card in the PC (also called a NIC for Network Interface Card).
Is different than a common dial up modem. Supports higher speeds.
Typically offered by cable companies.
Modems are the most popular means of Internet access, UCLA 2001
study of American Internet users shows that 81.3% of them use
telephone modem, and 11.5% cable modem

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Thankyou…

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