Dr. Sunarsih, M.A.

Writers use cause-effect analysis to show you what effect comes from
what cause. Stated another way, they show you the reason (the
cause) for some result (effect).
They may move from a statement of the cause to a statement of the
effect, or they may turn it around and give you the effect first and
the cause second.
 In the topic sentence, look for words like Why, What is the reason
for, What is the effect of, What is the cause of, What happens if,
What are the outcomes of.
 In the linking words, look for words like because, for those reasons,
there fore, consequently, it follows that, as a result of, accordingly.
 In the supporting ideas, look for a listing of results if the writers
move from cause to effects. On the other hand, look for a list of
reasons if the writers move from effects to cause.
A cause is a reason for, or events leading
up to. An effect is the results of a cause or
causes. Having the skill to think in the
mode of cause and effect is a key to victory
in daily situations.

A cause and effect paragraph analyzes the

causes or effects of a certain situation.

cause and effect paragraphs

 Transitional Expressions For Cause

 the first cause (second, third)

 the first reason (second, third)
 yet another factor
 because
 is caused by
 results from
 Transitional Expressions For Effect

 one important effect

 another result
 a third outcome
 as a result
 consequently
 then, next, therefore, thus, so
Avoiding Problems in Cause and Effect
Writing
• Do not oversimplify
• Do not confuse time order with causation
• Do not confuse causes and effects
 Example
• Letting alcohol take control over your life has many negative effects on a person
and the people around them. One important effect is the damage you can do to
your body. Drinking can lead to severe illness and even eventual death; some
health consequences to consider might be liver disease, kidney failure and, for
pregnant women, the loss of their unborn child. Another detriment is that an
addiction could lead to drinking and driving; possibly causing a fatal car accident
for either yourself and/or an innocent by stander. Another concern to consider is
the relationships alcohol can destroy. Alcohol abuse can have very serious affect
on a person’s temperament, which can lead to spousal and even child abuse.
Alcohol often is the number one cause in divorce and spending time in jail. It can
also affect relationships outside of the family; many people have lost life long
friends whether it is due to foolish arguments and behavior or possibly death.
Lastly, drinking has negative effects on self-esteem and rational thinking. People
become more self-centered, develop low self-esteem, doing things or behaving in
ways that they would not normally. They have little or no regard to the outcomes
of what is said or done when they grow reliant on getting that alcohol high. The
negative effects of alcohol abuse are overwhelming when considering the many
consequences that drinkers and the people around them have to deal with.
• ~© Racheal Guza 2005~
 G. DEVELOPMENT BY COMPARISON
AND CONTRAST
To compare is to examine how things are similar, while to contrast is to see
how they differ. A compare and contrast essay therefore looks at the
similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

• Writers use comparison to tell you how things are alike. They use contrast
to tell you how things are different. They usually put the two together to
tell you how things are both alike and different.
• In the topic sentence, look for the names of two or more things tied
together by and or or. Look also for words like What are the similarities and
differences in, How are these things alike and how are they different.
• In the linking words, look for words showing similarities, such as similarly, in
the same way, in a like manner, likewise. Look also for words showing
differences, such as however, nevertheless, on the contrary, or, not, on the
other hand, still, yet, rather.
• In the supporting ideas, look for lists of ways things are alike, and look for
lists of ways they are different.
Structure
 Compare and Contrast Structure
Words
Compare Contrast
Similarly However
Likewise In contrast
also In comparison
both... and... By comparison
not only... but also... On the other hand
neither... nor... while
just like (+ noun) whereas
similar to (+ noun) but
to be similar (to) to differ from
to be the same as to be different (from)
to be alike to be dissimilar to
to compare (to/with) to be unlike
 Example in Sentences
Compare:
Computers can be used to communicate easily, for
example via email. Similarly/Likewise, the mobile
phone is a convenient tool for communication.

Contrast:
Computers, although increasingly small, are not
always easy to carry from one place to another.
However, the mobile phone can be carried with
ease.
 Criteria for comparison/contrast
When making comparisons or contrasts, it is important to be
clear what criteria you are using. Study the following example,
which contrasts two people. Here the criteria are unclear.

“Aaron is tall and strong. In contrast, Bruce is handsome and

very intelligent. (incorrect)”

Although this sentence has a contrast transition, the criteria

for contrasting are not the same. The criteria used for Aaron
are height (tall) and strength (strong). We would expect
similar criteria to be used for Bruce (maybe he is short and
weak), but instead we have new criteria, namely appearance
(handsome) and intelligence (intelligent).
 EXAMPLE
• A problem in writing a speech is that you must understand
that talking and writing are alike in some ways and different
in other ways. To help you understand, let’s look at some
ways they are similar and distinctive. They both carry main
ideas and supporting ideas. They use words the same ways.
On the other hand, in talking, we use a more direct style
than we do in writing, for example, simpler sentences and
more concrete words. In talking, we use higher structure,
for example, an overview at the beginning to help people
organize their listening and a summary at the end to help
people get some thing they missed. By and large, we use
talking and writing to send messages to other people.
However, do not get the idea that writing is just talking put
down on paper.
H. DEVELOPMENT BY NARRATION
Writers use narration to tell you a story. The story shows what happens over a
period of time. Writers may tell you a true story about what happened, or they
may make up a story to give you a good time while showing you an idea or a
truth.
• Titles of stories are often very helpful in tipping you off to the main idea.
Stories usually do not have topic sentences and directly stated main ideas.
They more often have implied main ideas that you have to figure out. If they
do have a topic sentence, look for words like Once upon a time; Let me tell you
what happened; This is the story of; As I look back.
• In the linking words, look for words that show the passing of time—for ex
ample: once, then, next, in the end, in those days, now, as time passed.
• In the supporting ideas, look for the main parts of the story. These are the
characters—whom the story is about; the setting—where and when the story
takes place; the plot—what happens; and the tone—the mood.
 What is a Narrative Essay?
A narrative essay is one that tells a story. You might be
used to thinking of storytelling in connection with
personal relationships, where we’re telling our stories
all the time to friends, family, or romantic partners.
Some of your biggest exposures to storytelling probably
come through movies, TV shows or even YouTube
videos.
 The Narrative in Professional Life
A narrative essay, in showing the applicant’s
communication skills, technical knowledge and
leadership qualities, would be a powerful piece of self-
marketing. In many such cases, narratives written with
skill and attention to audience have helped applicants
land coveted positions.
 Writing a Compelling Narrative
A compelling narrative essay, even though it focuses on
factual events, will use many of the qualities you enjoy in a
good piece of fiction:

• Opening hook to get your audience interested or curious

• Sharply drawn characters
• Plot—that is, a chain of events with an interesting cause-
and-effect dynamic
• Vivid sensory description of people, events, and settings
• Dialogue
• Tension
• Climax
 EXAMPLE
• Kevin and I were pedaling fast down Radnor Avenue. He was a few
yards ahead of me, his crew-cut head pitched forward and his
flannel shirt whipping up like a plaid cape. When we got to
Tilghman Road, he leaned into his turn and I followed. I was
squinting so hard from the glare of the August sun that I didn’t see
the treacherous patch of gravel I was heading for. Just when I’d
twisted the handlebars sharply to the right, I heard the crunch
under my tires and felt a sick drop as the bike swept out from under
me. Suddenly I was sprawled on the macadam, my head and left leg
banging with pain. Bright red blood mixed with gravel showed
through a gash in the knee of my jeans. A few feet away my Denali
racer lay on its side, the handlebars bent and the front wheel still
spinning. I looked up the road. Kevin was just starting to turn
around to pedal back to me.
 I. DEVELOPMENT BY DESCRIPTION
Writers use description to tell you what a person, a thing,
or a place is like. They may also give you a feeling—an
impression—about a person, a thing, or a place.
• In the topic sentence, look for the name of the person,
place, or thing to be described. You may see words like
Let me tell you about.
• In the linking words, you may see words about size,
such as bigger than, or words about position, such as
next, near, far.
• In the supporting ideas, you will see lists of what
something or someone looks like, feels like, sounds like,
or seems like. These ideas may be listed in a certain
order—for example, from near to far.
 What do you want to describe?
As you get started on your descriptive essay, it's important for
you to identify exactly what you want to describe. Often, a
descriptive essay will focus on portraying one of the following:

• a person
• a place
• a memory
• an experience
• an object

Ultimately, whatever you can perceive or experience can be

the focus of your descriptive writing.
 How should you write your
description?
Consider these two simple examples:
• I grew tired after dinner.
• As I leaned back and rested my head against the top of the
chair, my eyelids began to feel heavy, and the edges of the
empty plate in front of me blurred with the white tablecloth.

The first sentence tells readers that you grew tired after dinner.
The second sentence shows readers that you grew tired. The
most effective descriptive essays are loaded with such showing
because they enable readers to imagine or experience
something for themselves.
 How should you write your
description?
As you write your descriptive essay, the best way to create a
vivid experience for your readers is to focus on the five senses.
• sight
• sound
• smell
• touch
• taste
When you focus your descriptions on the senses, you provide
vivid and specific details that show your readers rather than tell
your readers what you are describing.
 Planning your descriptive essay:
• What or who do you want to describe?
• What are the particular qualities that you
want to focus on?
 EXAMPLE
• Melbourne is considered to be the cultural center of
Australia. The majority of its theaters, museums,
galleries, and other remarkable places are located in
the city center, or the Central Business District.
However, it does not mean there is not much to see in
Melbourne beyond the central district. Redesigned and
revived industrial and old city areas turned into
residential districts, picturesque banks of the Yarra
River, spacious gardens, and other places of interest
combined with an extreme density of cultural events
make Melbourne a great city to visit for any tourist.
 J. DEVELOPMENT BY ARGUMENT AND
PERSUASION
Writer use argument and persuasion to get you to believe something or
to get you to do something. They ask, and try to answer, such questions
as What is true? What should we do? Why? Why not?

• In the topic sentence, look for words like should, ought, why, we
believe, we think, we feel.
• In the linking words, look for words like because, for this reason,
therefore, the facts are, logically.
• In the supporting ideas, look for lists of reasons to back up the main
idea in the topic sentence. Look also for examples of good things that
follow from one idea and bad things that follow from another idea.
 What is an Argumentative Essay?
Argument essays seek to state a position on an
issue and give several reasons, supported by
evidence, for agreeing with that position.
 How to Write Your Thesis
Question/Answer format: To make your topic idea into a
thesis you need to turn the topic idea into a question first.
Examples:

• Does divorce cause serious problems for the children?

(fact)
• What is "domestic violence?" (definition)
• What are the causes of divorce? (cause)
• How important is it for couples to avoid divorce? (value)
• What can you do to make your marriage divorce-proof?
(proposal)
 How to Write Your Thesis
Answer: Your question often can be the title of your paper, or
it can be the last line of the introduction. Your answer to this
question is your thesis.

Example:
The most important way to make your marriage divorce-proof
is to make sure you have carefully prepared for that
commitment.
 How to Write Your Thesis
Refute Objections: You might want to put an introductory
phrase in the first part of your thesis to show that you are
refuting other ideas about the answer.

Example:
While some people think there is no way to divorce-proof your
marriage, studies have shown that there are fewer divorces
when people carefully prepare for that commitment.
 How to Write Your Thesis
Roadmap: An additional way to make a strong thesis is to do a
"Roadmap" which tells in just a few words the three or more
main points you will cover.

Example:
While some people think there is no way to divorce-proof your
marriage, studies have shown that there are fewer divorces
when people carefully prepare for that commitment by taking
time to get to know the other person before becoming
engaged, spending time with one another's family and friends,
talking about hot-button issues like finances, and getting
extensive premarital counseling.
Introduction and Conclusion
 Outlining Your Paper
Argument essays are fairly straightforward in their organization. In
your paper, you will need to do the following;

• Interest the reader in the situation and make them think it is worth
learning more about.
• Explain the controversy or problem clearly.
• Explain the sides of the debate.
• Tell them your side.
• Convince them that your side is the best one to take.
• Refute any objections they may be thinking about as they read.
• Urge the reader to adopt our point of view to do, think or believe
something.
 Outlining Your Paper
Introduction: Explain the subject, the controversy, and
end with your thesis. Here are some tips:

• Use the title to present your point of view. Often the

title can be a question.
• Think about your audience—what aspects of this issue
would most interest or convince them?
• Check out the introduction and conclusion chart for
creative ways to introduce your paper.
• Make sure you have a clear thesis which answers the
question. The thesis should tell your position and is
usually the last sentence of your introduction.
 Outlining Your Paper
Body: Explains the reasons your audience should agree with your thesis. Your body
needs to also refute objections or other points of view.

1. Reasons and support

• Usually, you will have three or more reasons why the reader should accept your
position. These will be your topic sentences.
• Support each of these reasons with argument, examples, statistics, authorities or
anecdotes
• To make your reasons seem plausible, connect them back to your position by using
“if…then” reasoning

2. Anticipate opposing positions and objections

• What objections will your readers have? Answer them with argument or evidence.
• What other positions do people take on this subject? What is your reason for
rejecting these positions?
 Outlining Your Paper
Conclusion: Make a final point which tells the reader
what to think or do.

• Why should the reader adopt your point of view?

• You might use the anticipating objections in the
conclusion.
 EXAMPLE
• Perhaps almost everyone has dreamed of having a twin
in their childhood. It seemed to be so beneficial to
have an identical copy of oneself that would think and
act similarly. For children, having a twin means to have
a reliable friend throughout their whole lives, a mate
for sharing numerous jokes and playing games, or an
invaluable assistant who would always come to help in
the time of need. However, having a twin doesn’t lose
its advantages even in the adult age. Twins share many
interests; they often form bonds that, due to their
unique nature, are not possible in any other
relationship and it lasts forever. Therefore, being a twin
has many benefits.
 METHODS OF PARAGRAPH
DEVELOPMENT SONG (2)
sung in Topi Saya Bundar’s tune

• DESCRIPTION, NARRATION
• COMPARISON-CONTRAST
• DON’T FORGET CAUSE-EFFECT
• AND ARGUMENTATION
 SOURCES
http://www.eapfoundation.com/writing/essays/
candc/
http://english120.pbworks.com/w/page/190068
10/cause%20and%20effect%20paragraphs
https://owlcation.com/academia/How-to-Write-
an-Argument-Essay
http://www.11trees.com/live/what-is-a-
narrative-essay
https://www.writeexpress.com/descriptive-
essay.html
Supriyanto, Bambang. Critical Reading. ITB.