Fundamentals of Acoustics

The Nature of a Sound Event

 Sound consists of vibrations of air molecules
 Air molecules are analogous to tiny superballs
 Sound occurs when air molecules are disturbed
and made to ricochet off of each other
The Nature of a Sound Event
 The ricochets cause the density of the air
molecules to oscillate

Rarefied Normal Compressed

The Nature of a Sound Event
 The ricochets cause the density of the air
molecules to oscillate back and forth

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 Wave Types
Sound consists of longitudinal waves

The wave’s
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Water waves are transverse waves

The wave’s
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Sound
Propagation
Sound waves
propagate in a sphere
from the sound
source (try to imagine
a spherical slinky).
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molecules themselves
are not travelling.
What spreads is the
energy of the wave.
Sound Perception
 Speed of sound (in air):
1128 ft./sec (344 m/sec)
 When sound waves reach the eardrum, they
are transduced into mechanical energy in
the middle ear
 The mechanical motion is transduced into
electrical current in the inner ear. The
auditory nerves interpret the current as
sound
Sound Wave Plots
 Sound waves are typically represented with
molecular density as a function of time

compressed

normal
time

rarefied

molecular density
Music vs. Noise
Musical sounds are typically periodic – the wave repeats regularly
repeats
Sine wave

Though they don’t exist in

nature, sine waves are often
useful for demonstrating
properties of sounds

Noise is aperiodic – there is no repeating pattern

Noise
Properties of a Musical Event
A musical event can be described by four properties.
Each can be described subjectively, or objectively (in
terms of measured properties)

Subjective Objective
Pitch Frequency
Volume Amplitude/Power/Intensity
Timbre Overtone content
Duration in beats Duration in time
Frequency/Pitch
Frequency is measured in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz)

f = 2 Hz one second

Wavelength (l), the

distance between
corresponding points
on the wave, is the l
inverse of frequency.

c 1000 ft./sec.
l = = = 500 ft./cyc.
f 2 cyc./sec.
 Frequency/Pitch
Middle A = 440 Hz
l = 2.3 ft.

frequencies
20 Hz < audible to < 20,000 Hz (20 kHz)
humans
l = 50 ft. l = 0.05 ft.

Sound wavelengths are significantly larger than light wavelengths

Waves reflect from a surface if its
height/width is larger than the wavelength
Waves refract around surface if the
surface dimensions are smaller than
the wavelength

This explains
Light why we
wavelengths are can hearsmall
far too soundto from around
refract corners,
around any
but cannot
visible see around corners:
surface
Our Pitch Perception is
Logarithmic
Equivalent pitch intervals are perceived according to an
equivalent change in exponent, not in absolute frequency

For example, we hear an equivalent pitch class with every

doubling of frequency (the interval of an octave)

Frequencies of successive octaves of concert A

55 110 220 440 880 1760 3520

55 x 2 0 55 x 2 1 55 x 2 2 55 x 2 3 55 x 2 4 55 x 2 5 55 x 2 6
 Our Pitch System is Based on
Equal Division of the Octave
12 Tone Equal Temperament –
the octave is divided into twelve equal increments

We can describe an octave by:

• choosing a starting frequency
n/12
• multiply it by 2 for n = 0 to 11
A A# B C C# D D# E F F# G G#
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212 220 x 212

220 233 247 261.6 277 293.6 311 329.6 349.2 370 392 415.3

Higher octaves may be created by doubling each frequency

Lower octaves may be created by halving each frequency
 Phase
Phase = “the position of a wave at a certain time”
If two waveforms at the same frequency do
not have simultaneous zero-crossings, we say
they are “out of phase”
Wave 1 + Wave 2

Wave 1
Two waves at the
same frequency but
Wave 2 different phase

In terms of sound perception, phase can be critical or imperceptible,

as we’ll see...
Loudness
Loudness is related to three measurements:
• Power
• Pressure
• Intensity

All three are related to changes in sound

pressure level (molecular density)
Molecular Motion is Stationary
 As sound travels, molecules are not traveling with
the sound wave
 What is traveling is an expanding sphere of energy
that displaces molecules as it passes over them
 How strong is the force behind this energy wave?
 The more force is contained in a sound wave, the
greater its perceived loudness.
Power
Power = the amount of time it takes to do work
(exert force, move something)
Power is measured in watts, W

There are two difficulties in measuring sound power levels.

The range of human hearing encompasses many millions of watts.
Sound power level is also relative, not absolute. Air
molecules are never completely motionless.

Given these two difficulties, sound power levels are

measured on a scale that is comparative and logarithmic,
the decibel scale.
Logarithmic Scale
Logarithm = exponent
(an exponent is typically an integer, a logarithm not necessarily)

102 = 100 log10100 = 2

103 = 1000 log101000 = 3
102.698 = 500 log10500 = 2.698
102.875 = 750 log10750 = 2.875

Logarithms allow us to use a small range of

numbers to describe a large range of numbers
The Decibel Scale
 The decibel scale is a comparison of a
sound’s power level with a threshold level
(the lowest audible power level of a sine
tone at 1 kHz).
Threshold (W0):
W0 = 10-12 watts

Power level of a given sound in watts, LW(dB):

L W (dB) = 10*log10 (W/W0 )
Decibels
Typical power levels:
Soft rustling leaves 10 dB
Normal conversation 60 dB
Construction site 110 dB
Threshold of pain 125 dB

Halving or doubling sound power level results in a change of

3 dB.
For example, a doubling of the threshold level may be
calculated:
 
 410 12 
 10log10  2  3.01 dB
 
LW(dB) = 10log10  12   
 210 

Thus, a power level of 13 dB is twice that of 10 dB. A

power level of 60 dB is half that of 63 dB, and so on.
Pressure changes
The degree of fluctuation present in a vibrating object
Peak pressure level:
Maximum change in sound pressure level
(more generally: in a vibrating system, the
maximum displacement from equilibrium position)

The amplitude level fluctuates with the wave’s oscillation.

Thus, power is the cause, pressure change is the result
Pressure changes
Also may be described as changes in sound pressure level
(molecular density).
Pressure level is measured in Newtons per square meter (N/m 2 )
-5
Threshold: 2 x 10 N/m2 (p0 )
There is a direct relationship between pressure and power
levels:
For any propagating wave (mechanical, electric, acoustic, etc.)
the energy contained in the wave is proportional to the square
of its pressure change.
Pressure changes are also expressed in decibels, but in a way
that describes an equivalent change in power level:

L W (dB) = 10*log10(W/W0) = 10*log10(p/p0)2 = 20*log10(p/p0)

This is how pressure is
logmn = nlogm measured
Pressure changes
In audio parlance, “amplitude” (the degree of
pressure change) is often equated with “loudness.”
The reason is that modifications to volume are made by
adjusting the amplitude of electrical current sent to an
amplifier.

But perceived loudness is actually based on power level plus

the distance of the listener from the source.
Intensity
Power corresponds to the sphere of energy expanding
outward from the sound source
The power remains constant, spread evenly over the
surface of the sphere

Perceived loudness depends primarily on the sound

power level and the distance from the sound event
Power combined with distance is intensity, I,
measured in watts per square meter (W/m2 ).

Intensity is also measured in decibels:

-12
L I (dB) = 10*log 10(I/I 0 ) I0 = 10 W/m 2
Timbre
The perceived difference in sound quality when two
different instruments play at the same pitch and loudness
Sine waves are useful as demonstrations because they are a
wave with one frequency only, thus they are often termed
pure tones
Natural sounds are composed of multiple frequencies

To understand how a wave can be composed of multiple

frequencies, we can consider the behavior of a wave in a
bounded medium, such as a string secured at both ends (or
air vibrating within a pipe)
Timbre
When we pluck a string, we initiate wave motion

The wavelength is twice the length of the string

The perceived pitch is the fundamental, the speed

of sound divided by the wavelength
Timbre

This curved shape represents the

string’s maximum deviation

It’s more accurate to think of it as a

series of suspended masses (kind of like
popcorn strung together to hang on a
Christmas tree).
Timbre
Each suspended mass can vibrate independently.
Thus, many simultaneous vibrations/frequencies
occur along a string.
When a string is first plucked, it produces a
potentially infinite number of frequencies.
Timbre
Eventually, the bounded nature of the string confines wave
propagation and the frequencies it can support
Only frequencies that remain in phase after one propagation
back and forth can be maintained; all other frequencies are
cancelled out

Only frequencies based on integer subdivisions of the string’s

length, corresponding to integer multiples of the fundamental,
can continue to propagate
Timbre
These frequencies are called harmonics

NOTE:
These frequencies are
equally spaced

Therefore, they do
not all produce the
same pitch as the
fundamental
Therefore, other
frequencies are
introduced

…etc.
Timbre
 Harmonics are well known to many
instrumentalists
– Strings
– Brass
 Timbre
 The first six harmonics are often the
strongest:

220 440 660 880 1100 1320

Fundamental Octave Perfect fifth Octave Major third Perfect fifth

 People can learn to “hear out” harmonics

Timbre
 Instruments and natural sounds usually
contain many frequencies above the
fundamental
 These additional frequencies, as part of the
total sound, are termed partials
 The first partial is the fundamental
Timbre
 The first partial is the fundamental
 Other terms are also used
 Overtones are partials above the
fundamental (the first overtone is the
second partial)
 Harmonics are partials that are integer
multiples of the fundamental
The Spectrum
 Jean Baptiste Fourier (1768-1830) discovered a
fundamental tenet of wave theory
 All periodic waves are composed of a series of
sinusoidal waves
 These waves are harmonics of the fundamental
 Each harmonic has its own amplitude and phase
 The decomposition of a complex wave into its
harmonic components, its spectrum, is known as a
Fourier analysis
 The Spectrum
It is often more useful to represent complex
waveforms with a spectral plot as opposed to a time
domain plot

time domain spectral domain

amplitude as a function of time amplitude as a function of frequency
Sound in Time
 Our perception of sound and music events is
determined by the behavior of frequency
and loudness over time
 Sound in Time
 All instruments can be characterized by
changes in amplitude over time (the
envelope)
loudness

trumpet bowed violin harp time

Changes in amplitude often correspond with changes in

frequency content...
Sound in Time
 Most instrument’s sound begins with an initial
transient, or attack, portion
 The transient is characterized by many high
frequencies and noise
 Example: the scraping of a bow or the chiff of
breath
 An instrument’s distinctiveness is determined
primarily by the transient portion of its sound
Sound in Time
 Following the transient, instruments usually
produce a steady-state, or sustained, sound
 The steady state is characterized by
– Periodicity
– Harmonic spectrum
 The Spectrogram
Most natural sounds (and musical instruments) do not
have a stable spectrum.
Rather, their frequency content changes with time.
The spectrogram is a three-dimensional plot:

Vibraphone note at 293 Hz (middle D)

2) frequency

3) power of a given frequency (darkness level)

1) time

The instrument’s sound is characterized by the fundamental at 293 Hz and the fourth harmonic at 1173 Hz.
The attack also contains noise below 2 kHz, the tenth harmonic at 2933 Hz and the seventeenth harmonic at 4986 Hz.
Once the steady state portion sets in, the highest harmonic fades first, followed by a fading of the fundamental.
Localization
 The auditory system localizes events through
interaural time delay – the sound wave reaches the
nearer ear a few milliseconds before it reaches the
farther ear
 For stereo systems, using delay for localization is
impractical because it requires people to listen
from a “sweet spot”
 Localization effects are simulated through
differences in loudness
Localization
 In a multi-speaker system, a sound emanating
from one speaker will be localized at that speaker
 A sound produced at equal volume from two
speakers will be perceived as a “phantom image”
placed in space between them
 Changing the volume balance between two
speakers will cause the phantom image to “drift”
towards the louder speaker
Measurement and Perception
 Our perception of auditory events is based
on all these measurements in combination
 And more
 An auditory event may be more than the
sum of its parts
Measurement and Perception
Phase

 Changing the phase of components in a steady-

state tone produces no perceptible change in
sound, although the shape of the wave may change
noticeably
Measurement and Perception
Phase
 The behavior of components in the attack segment is likely
to be far more complex than in the steady state segment
 Changing the phase of attack components can change the
character of the attack
 Solo performance sounds different from group
performance because no two players can ever sound at
exactly the same time; thus the attack is blurred
 Since an instrument’s characteristics are defined primarily
by the attack, the phase of attack components is critical
Measurement and Perception
Timbre
 We have discussed timbre as the result of overtone content
 It is also judged by the sound’s envelope
 Research in sound synthesis has shown the envelope shape
to be more definitive than an exact match of overtone
content
 The attack portion is critical—a faster attack can be
confused with “brightness” (more high frequency overtones)
 Considerable research has gone into the creation of “timbre
space,” a multi-dimensional plot in which timbres are
classified according to overtone content, envelope and
attack time
Measurement and Perception
Loudness
While intensity is the measurement most closely correlated to
loudness, the perception of volume is based on a number of
factors, not all of them entirely measurable.
Measurement and perception
Loudness
Perceived loudness is frequency-dependent

Perceived equal
loudness of sine
tones

This is why
many receivers
have a
Loudness knob

Equal loudness curves (Fletcher, Munson, 1930s).

Measurement and perception
Loudness
Perceived loudness is frequency-dependent
Within close frequency ranges, perceived loudness is
proportional to the cube root of intensity
Two violins playing the same pitch will generate twice the
intensity of one violin, but will not sound twice as loud

To achieve twice the volume, eight violins are required

Measurement and perception
Loudness
Perceived loudness is bandwidth-dependent

Increasing the bandwidth (component frequency

content) of a sound makes it sound louder, even if the
intensity remains constant

Despite many efforts, no one has suceeded in

creating a definitive perceptual scaling system for
loudness
Measurement and Perception
Loudness
Some have argued that estimation of loudness is not
automatic (measurable), but depends on a number of
higher-level estimations of distance, import, context, etc.

Hermann Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone (1885):

…we are exceedingly well trained in finding out by our
sensations the objective nature of the objects around us,
but we are completely unskilled in observing these
sensations per se; and the practice of associating them
with things outside of us actually prevents us from being
distinctly conscious of the pure sensations.
Measurement and Perception
Conclusion
Objective measurements can tell us more about sound
events
By the same token, they give us insight into what we
don’t know
This course will examine music in technical terms
This examination will give us some new insights
It will also give us an idea of where music crosses the
barrier from the objective (acoustics) to the subjective
(magic?)