Chapter 18: Electrical Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• How are electrical conductance and resistance
characterized?
• What are the physical phenomena that distinguish
conductors, semiconductors, and insulators?
• For metals, how is conductivity affected by
imperfections, temperature, and deformation?
• For semiconductors, how is conductivity affected
by impurities (doping) and temperature?

Chapter 18 - 1
 View of an Integrated Circuit
• Scanning electron micrographs of an IC:
Al (d) (a)
(d)

Si
(doped)
45 mm 0.5 mm
• A dot map showing location of Si (a semiconductor):
-- Si shows up as light regions. (b)

• A dot map showing location of Al (a conductor):

-- Al shows up as light regions. (c)

Fig. (d) from Fig. 12.27(a), Callister & Rethwisch 3e.

Figs. (a), (b), (c) from Fig. 18.27, Callister
(Fig. 12.27 is courtesy Nick Gonzales, National
& Rethwisch 8e.
Semiconductor Corp., West Jordan, UT.)
Chapter 18 - 2
 Electrical Conduction
• Ohm's Law: V=IR
voltage drop (volts = J/C) resistance (Ohms)
C = Coulomb current (amps = C/s)

• Resistivity, :
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry surface area
RA
 of current flow
l
current flow
path length
• Conductivity,  1

 

 Chapter 18 - 3
 Electrical Properties
• Which will have the greater resistance?
2 2 8
D R1  
D 2 D2
  
2 

2D   R1
R2   
2D  D
2 2
8
   
  2 

• Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

• Resistance depends on sample geometry and
size.

Chapter 18 - 4
 Definitions
Further definitions

J= <= another way to state Ohm’s law

current I
J  current density   like a flux
surface area A
  electric field potential = V/

J =  (V/ )

Electron flux conductivity voltage gradient

Chapter 18 - 5
 Conductivity: Comparison
• Room temperature values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS conductors CERAMICS
-10
Silver 6.8 x 10 7 Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper 6.0 x 10 7 Concrete 10 -9
Iron 1.0 x 10 7 Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS POLYMERS
-14
Silicon 4 x 10 -4 Polystyrene <10
Germanium 2 x 10 0 Polyethylene 10 -15-10-17
GaAs 10 -6
semiconductors insulators
Selected values from Tables 18.1, 18.3, and 18.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 6
 Example: Conductivity Problem
What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that V < 1.5 V?

 100 m
Cu wire - I = 2.5 A +

V


100 m
< 1.5 V
 V
R 
D 2 A I 2.5 A

4 6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1

Solve to get D > 1.87 mm

Chapter 18 - 7
Electron Energy Band Structures

Adapted from Fig. 18.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 8
Band Structure Representation

Adapted from Fig. 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 9
 Conduction & Electron Transport
• Metals (Conductors):
-- for metals empty energy states are adjacent to filled states.
-- thermal energy Partially filled band Overlapping bands
excites electrons
Energy Energy
into empty higher
empty
energy states. band
-- two types of band GAP empty
structures for metals band
- partially filled band partly
- empty band that filled filled

filled states
band

filled states
overlaps filled band band

filled filled
band band

Chapter 18 - 10
 Energy Band Structures:
Insulators & Semiconductors
• Insulators: • Semiconductors:
-- wide band gap (> 2 eV) -- narrow band gap (< 2 eV)
-- few electrons excited -- more electrons excited
across band gap across band gap
Energy empty Energy empty
conduction conduction
band band
GAP ?
GAP

filled filled

filled states
filled states

valence valence
band band

filled filled
band band
Chapter 18 - 11
 Metals: Influence of Temperature and
Impurities on Resistivity
• Presence of imperfections increases resistivity
-- grain boundaries
These act to scatter
-- dislocations
electrons so that they
-- impurity atoms take a less direct path.
-- vacancies
6
• Resistivity
Resistivity, 
(10 -8 Ohm-m)

5
increases with:
4 -- temperature
3 d -- wt% impurity
-- %CW
2 i
1
t
 = thermal
0 -200 -100 0 T (ºC) + impurity
Adapted from Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.8
adapted from J.O. Linde, Ann. Physik 5, p. 219 (1932); and C.A.
+ deformation
Wert and R.M. Thomson, Physics of Solids, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York, 1970.) Chapter 18 - 12
 Estimating Conductivity
• Question:
-- Estimate the electrical conductivity  of a Cu-Ni alloy Adapted from Fig.
18.9, Callister &
that has a yield strength of 125 MPa. Rethwisch 8e.
180
Yield strength (MPa)

(10 -8 Ohm-m)
50

Resistivity, 
160
140 40
125 30
120
100 20
21 wt% Ni 10
80
60 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt% Ni, (Concentration C) wt% Ni, (Concentration C)
Adapted from Fig. 7.16(b), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 8
  30 x 10 Ohm  m
From step 1:
1
   3.3 x 106(Ohm  m)1
CNi = 21 wt% Ni 
Chapter 18 - 13
Charge Carriers in Insulators and
Semiconductors
Adapted from Fig. 18.6(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Two types of electronic charge
carriers:
Free Electron
– negative charge
– in conduction band

Hole
– positive charge
– vacant electron state in
the valence band

Move at different speeds - drift velocities

Chapter 18 - 14
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon &
germanium
– Group IVA materials
• Compound semiconductors
– III-V compounds
• Ex: GaAs & InSb
– II-VI compounds
• Ex: CdS & ZnTe
– The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.

Chapter 18 - 15
 Intrinsic Semiconduction in Terms of
Electron and Hole Migration

• Concept of electrons and holes:

valence electron hole electron hole
electron Si atom
pair creation pair migration

- + - +

no applied applied applied

electric field electric field electric field
• Electrical Conductivity given by:
Adapted from Fig. 18.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
# holes/m3
  n e me  p e m h
hole mobility
# electrons/m3 electron mobility
Chapter 18 - 16
 Number of Charge Carriers
Intrinsic Conductivity
  n e me  p e m h

• for intrinsic semiconductor n = p = ni

  = ni|e|(me + mh)

• Ex: GaAs
 106 (  m) 1
ni  
e me  mh  (1.6x1019 C)(0.85  0.45 m2 /V  s)

For GaAs ni = 4.8 x 1024 m-3

For Si ni = 1.3 x 1016 m-3
Chapter 18 - 17
 Intrinsic Semiconductors:
Conductivity vs T
• Data for Pure Silicon:
--  increases with T
  ni e me  mh 
-- opposite to metals

E gap / kT
ni  e


material band gap (eV)

Si 1.11
 Ge 0.67
GaP 2.25
CdS 2.40
Selected values from Table 18.3,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Adapted from Fig. 18.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 18 - 18
 Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Conduction
• Intrinsic:
-- case for pure Si
-- # electrons = # holes (n = p)
• Extrinsic:
-- electrical behavior is determined by presence of impurities
that introduce excess electrons or holes
-- n ≠ p
• n-type Extrinsic: (n >> p) • p-type Extrinsic: (p >> n)
Phosphorus atom Boron atom
hole
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ conduction 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+
  n e me 4+ 5+ 4+ 4+
electron
4+ 3+ 4+ 4+   p e mh
valence
4+ 4+ 4+ 4+ electron 4+ 4+ 4+ 4+

Adapted from Figs. 18.12(a)

no applied Si atom no applied
& 18.14(a), Callister & electric field electric field
Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 18 - 19
 Extrinsic Semiconductors: Conductivity
vs. Temperature
• Data for Doped Silicon:
--  increases doping doped

-- reason: imperfection sites undoped

lower the activation energy to 3

concentration (1021/m3)
produce mobile electrons.

Conduction electron

freeze-out
2

extrinsic

intrinsic
• Comparison: intrinsic vs
extrinsic conduction... 1
-- extrinsic doping level:
1021/m3 of a n-type donor
impurity (such as P). 0
-- for T < 100 K: "freeze-out“, 0 200 400 600 T (K)
thermal energy insufficient to
excite electrons. Adapted from Fig. 18.17, Callister & Rethwisch
8e. (Fig. 18.17 from S.M. Sze, Semiconductor
-- for 150 K < T < 450 K: "extrinsic" Devices, Physics, and Technology, Bell
-- for T >> 450 K: "intrinsic" Telephone Laboratories, Inc., 1985.)

Chapter 18 - 20
 p-n Rectifying Junction
• Allows flow of electrons in one direction only (e.g., useful
to convert alternating current to direct current).
• Processing: diffuse P into one side of a B-doped crystal.
+ p-type n-type
-
-- No applied potential: + + - Adapted from
Fig. 18.21
no net current flow. + + - - - Callister &
Rethwisch
8e.
-- Forward bias: carriers
flow through p-type and p-type+ - n-type
+ + -
n-type regions; holes and ++- - -
electrons recombine at + -
p-n junction; current flows.

-- Reverse bias: carriers n-type -

+ p-type
flow away from p-n junction; - + + - - +
junction region depleted of + + - -
carriers; little current flow.
Chapter 18 - 21
 Properties of Rectifying Junction

Fig. 18.22, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Fig. 18.23, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 18 - 22
Junction Transistor

Fig. 18.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Chapter 18 - 23
 MOSFET Transistor
Integrated Circuit Device

Fig. 18.26, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.

• MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor)

• Integrated circuits - state of the art ca. 50 nm line width
– ~ 1,000,000,000 components on chip
– chips formed one layer at a time

Chapter 18 - 24
 Ferroelectric Ceramics
• Experience spontaneous polarization

BaTiO3 -- ferroelectric below

its Curie temperature (120ºC)

Fig. 18.35, Callister &

Rethwisch 8e.
Chapter 18 - 25
 Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectricity
– application of stress induces voltage
– application of voltage induces dimensional change

stress-free with applied

stress
Adapted from Fig. 18.36, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig. 18.36 from Van Vlack, Lawrence H., Elements of
Materials Science and Engineering, 1989, p.482, Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey.)
Chapter 18 - 26
 Summary
• Electrical conductivity and resistivity are:
-- material parameters
-- geometry independent
• Conductors, semiconductors, and insulators...
-- differ in range of conductivity values
-- differ in availability of electron excitation states
• For metals, resistivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- addition of imperfections
-- plastic deformation
• For pure semiconductors, conductivity is increased by
-- increasing temperature
-- doping [e.g., adding B to Si (p-type) or P to Si (n-type)]
• Other electrical characteristics
-- ferroelectricity
-- piezoelectricity Chapter 18 - 27
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 18 - 28