HVAC

- Stands for Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning.

Heating – the process of providing warm air to households
or buildings in cold climate regions.
Ventilation – the process of supplying or removing air by
natural or mechanical means to or from any space. Such air
may or may not be conditioned.
Air Refrigeration
Conditioning–– the
the process
process of
of treating
removing airheat from a its
certain
to control
location. The systemcleanliness
is composed of distribution
four main components,
temperature, humidity, and to meet
the namely the Compressor, Condenser, Expansion Valve and the
requirements of the conditioned space.
Evaporator.
Ventilation
Natural Ventilation

Mechanical Ventilation
- Exhaust Fans (room is negative pressure)

-Blowers (room is positive pressure)

 Main Component of an Air-conditioning System
Compressor– mechanical device used
in Refrigeration System to increase the
pressure upon the Refrigerant.
Condenser– a vessel or arrangement
of pipe or tubing in which vaporized
refrigerant is liquefied by the
removal of heat.
Expansion Valve – part of the
refrigeration system through which
liquid refrigerant under pressure is
allowed to expand to a lower pressure
and greater volume
Evaporator– part of the refrigeration
system in which liquid refrigerant is
vaporized to produce refrigeration.
Types of Air-conditioning System
and their Applications
1. Window-type Air Conditioner
- most commonly used air conditioner for single rooms

- the four components are enclosed in a single box.

 1. Window-type Air Conditioner
Parts: a) Refrigeration System

Expansion valve
1. Window-type Air Conditioner
Parts: b) Air Circulation System
 1. Window-type Air Conditioner
Parts: c) Control System

> Temperature – controlled by the

Thermostat

> Air Flow Rate – amount of air

> Direction of flow

2. Split-type Air Conditioner
- Comprises of 2 parts: Outdoor and Indoor Units

Indoor Unit Outdoor Unit

- Cooling Coil / Evaporator Coil

- Air Filter - Compressor

- Condenser
- Cooling Fan / Blower
- Condenser Cooling Fan
- Louvers (Horizontal & Vertical)
- Expansion Valve
3. Packaged Air Conditioner
- Usually used in restaurants, small halls where cooling load ranges from 3 tons
to 15 tons.
- Packaged air conditioners all the important components of the air
conditioners are enclosed in a single casing like window AC.

a) Packaged AC with Water Cooled Condenser

3. Packaged Air Conditioner
- Usually used in restaurants, small halls where cooling load ranges from
3 tons to 15 tons.
- In this packaged air conditioners the condenser of the refrigeration
system is cooled by the atmospheric air.

b) Packaged AC with Air Cooled Condenser

4. Centralized Air Conditioner
- Centralized air conditioning plants are used for
applications like big hotels, large buildings having
multiple floors, hospitals, etc, where very high cooling
loads are required.
 4. Centralized Air Conditioner
Types:
a. Direct Expansion (DX) Type:
- In the direct expansion or DX types of air central
conditioning plants the air used for cooling space is
directly chilled by the refrigerant in the cooling coil of
the air handling unit.
- used for cooling small buildings or rooms in a single
floor.
* Plant Room * Shell and Tube
Condensers
* Air Handling
Unit

* Air Conditioned
Room
4. Centralized Air Conditioner
Types:
a. Direct Expansion (DX) Type:
* Plant Room

- Condensers
•Shell and Tube

- Compressor
•Semi hermitically Sealed
-Air cooled
•Open type
-Water cooled
-Cooling tower
a)
•Cross flow
• Counter flow
b)
•Induced draft
•Forced Draft
4. Centralized Air Conditioner
Types:
a. Direct Expansion (DX) Type:
* Air Handling Unit (AHU)

- Evaporator/Cooling Coil

-Air Filter

-Blower

-Ducting
-Return Air Duct
- Supply Air Duct
4. Centralized Air Conditioner
Types:
a. Direct Expansion (DX) Type:
* Air Conditioned Room

- Supply Air Diffusers

-Return Air Diffusers / Air

Grilles
4. Centralized Air Conditioner
Types:
b. Chilled Water Centralized Air Conditioning Plants
- The chilled water types of central air conditioning plants are
installed in the place where whole large buildings, shopping mall,
airport, hotel, etc, comprising of several floors are to be air
conditioned. While in the direct expansion type of central air
conditioning plants, refrigerant is directly used to cool the room air; in
the chilled water plants the refrigerant first chills the water, which in
turn chills the room air

Chiller
4.Types:
Centralized Air Conditioner
b. Chilled Water Centralized Air Conditioning Plants
Chiller

Cooling Tower
Evaporative Cooling System

Evaporative air conditioning uses evaporation to cool the air. In an

evaporative cooler, a pump circulates water from the reservoir on to a cooling
pad, which in turn becomes very wet. A fan draws air from outside the unit
through the moistened pad. As it passes through the pad the air is cooled by
evaporation.
Air-conditioning and Psychrometrics
Air Conditioning– the process of treating air to control its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness and distribution to meet
the requirements of the conditioned space.

Temperature Control - passing the air through the cooling coil

Humidity Control - controlling the amount of water vapor

present in the air in the space.

Psychrometrics - the science of studying the thermodynamic

properties of moist air.
Definitions of Air
Three basic definitions are used to describe air under various
conditions:
1. Atmospheric air - contains nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, water vapor, other gases, and miscellaneous
contaminants such as dust, pollen, and smoke. This is the air
we breathe and use for ventilation.
2. Dry air - exists when all of the contaminants and water
vapor have been removed from atmospheric air. By volume,
dry air contains about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen,
and 1 percent other gases. Dry air is used as the reference in
psychrometrics.
3. Moist air - is a mixture of dry air and water vapor.
Psychrometric Chart
 Psychrometric Chart
- displays the properties of air

1. Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) is the temperature measured with a standard

thermometer that has no water on its surface.
Properties of Air
2. Wet bulb temperature (WBT) is a temperature associated with the moisture
content of the air.
Properties of Air
3. Enthalpy is the measure of heat energy in the air due to sensible heat or latent heat.
Sensible heat is the heat (energy) in the air due to the temperature of the air and the
latent heat is the heat (energy) in the air due to the moisture of the air. (Btu/lb of dry
air) or (kJ/kg dry air).
Properties of Air
4. Relative humidity (RH) is a measure of the amount of water air can hold at a
certain temperature.
Properties of Air
5. Absolute Humidity is the vapor content of air, given in grams or lb of water vapor
per lb of dry air (i.e., lb of moisture/lb of d.a). It is also known as moisture content or
humidity ratio.
Properties of Air
6. Dew point temperature (DPT) indicates the temperature at which water will
begin to condense out of moist air.
Properties of Air
7. Specific Volume is the volume that a certain weight of air occupies at a specific set
of conditions. The specific volume of air is basically the reciprocal of air density.
Properties of Air
8. Vapor Pressure - linearly related to absolute humidity and is represented on
Psychrometric Chart by lines that run horizontally and the values are on the far
right hand side of the chart increasing from bottom to top. The unit of measure for
vapor pressure is inches-w.g. or PASCAL.
Example:
1. An air-conditioned room at sea level has an indoor
design temperature of 30°C and a relative humidity of
50%. Determine the humidity ratio, enthalpy, density,
dew point, and thermodynamic wet bulb temperature of
the indoor air at design condition.
Seatwork #1 (30 pts):
1. A sling psychrometer gives a dry-bulb temperature of 25°C and a wet-bulb
temperature of 15°C. Determine the ff:
a) RH (%)
b) DPT (degC)
c) w (g vapor/ kg dryair)
d) h (kJ/ kg da)
e) VP (mbar)

2. The air containing 5 grams of vapor per kilogram dry air has an enthalpy of
50kJ/kg. Determine the following parameters
a) RH (%)
b) DBT (degC)
c) WBT (degC)
d) DPT (degC)
e) v (m3/ kg da)
1. A sling psychrometer gives a dry-bulb temperature of 25°C and a wet-bulb
temperature of 15°C. Determine the ff:
a) RH (%)
b) DPT (degC)
c) w (g vapor/ kg dryair)
d) h (kJ/ kg da)
e) VP (mbar)

2. The air containing 5 grams of vapor per kilogram dry air has an enthalpy of
50kJ/kg. Determine the following parameters
a) RH (%)
b) DBT (degC)
c) WBT (degC)
d) DPT (degC)
e) v (m3/ kg da)
Psychrometric Processes
A thermodynamic system is said to undergo a process
whenever it changes from one state-point to another.
1. Sensible Heating and Cooling (w & DPT are constant)- -
-the process of heating or cooling the air without changing its
moisture content. It is represented by lines of constant
humidity ratio on the psychrometric chart.
1. Sensible Heat Load, QS
QS= m *(h2 – h1), kW
m = mass of air, kgDA
h = enthalpy of air, kJ/ kgDA
Sample problem:
1. Calculate the amount of sensible heat that must be
added to 100kg of air at 30°C dry bulb and 24°C wet
bulb to raise the temperature of air to 38°C dry bulb.
2. Determine the amount of sensible heat needed to
increase the temperature of air from 10°C and 50%
RH to 32°C.
Psychrometric Processes
2. Heating and Humidification -
Humidification is the process of introducing moisture
into the airstream. Heating and Humidifying is the
process of simultaneously increasing both the dry-bulb
temperature and humidity ratio of the air.
1. Sensible Heat Load, QS
QS= m *(h0 – h1), kJ, kW
m = mass of air, kgDA
h = enthalpy of air, kJ/ kgDA
2. Latent Heat Load, QL
QL= m *(h2 – h0), kJ, kW
3. Total Heat Load, QT
QT= QS + QL = m *(h2 – h1), kJ, kW

4. Rate of Moisture Addition, MW

MW = m *(w2 – w0), kgv, gv
w = humidity ratio, kgV / kgDA
Sample problem:
1. How much moisture is added to 10 kg of air going
from 10°C, 50% RH to 20°C, 60% RH?
2. Eight cubic-m of lumber is dried at 40°C dry bulb
temperature and 30°C wet bulb temperature. The
drying rate of the lumber is 3 kg of water per hour. If
outside air is at 25°C dry bulb temperature and 80%
relative humidity, how much outside air is needed
per minute to carry away the evaporated moisture?
 Psychrometric Processes
3. Cooling and Dehumidifying - the process of
lowering both the dry-bulb temperature and the humidity
ratio of the moist air. This process is used in air-conditioning
systems operating in hot, humid climates.
Sample problem:
1. Consider a hot humid day 32°C and 90% RH. We want
to condition the air to 21°C at about 50% RH. Show the
processes on the psychrometric chart. How much
moisture is removed ? How much heat is needed to
arrive at the desired condition (kJ/kg)?
Psychrometric Processes

4. Heating and Dehumidification - the process of

increasing the dry-bulb temperature and lowering the humidity
ratio of the moist air. This process is used in air-conditioning
systems operating in cold, humid climates. The process is
accomplished by using desiccant materials.
5. Evaporative Cooling - is an adiabatic process, that is,
there is no net heat loss or gain. When hot air stream is made to
pass through wet spray, the sensible heat of air vaporizes the water
and the air’s dry bulb temperature will fall.
Psychrometric Processes
6. Mixing Process (Steady Flow) - The steady flow mixing
process is used extensively in system processes of air conditioning
technology. The process consists of mixing two or more streams at
different states.
1. By Mass Balance
m1 + m2 = m3
m = mass of air, kgDA
2. By Moisture Balance
m1*w1 + m2*w2 = m3*w3
w = humidity ratio, kgV / kgDA
3. By Heat Balance
m1*h1 + m2*h2 = m3*h3
h = enthalpy, kJ / kgDA

4. By Dry Bulb Temperature Balance

m1*T1 + m2*T2 = m3*T3
T = Dry Bulb Temperature, °C
Sample Problem:
1. A stream of outdoor air is mixed with a return air in an
air-conditioning system that operates at 101 kPa
pressure. The flow rate of outdoor system air is 2 m3/sec
and its condition is 35°C DBT and 25°C WBT. The
flowrate of return is 3 m3/sec and its condition is
24°C and 50% RH. Determine the enthalpy of the
mixture.
h1= 75.9 kJ/kg
w1= 0.0159 kgv/kgda
v1= 0.892 m3/kg
h2= 48 kJ/kg
w2= 0.0092 kgv/kgda
v2= 0.853 m3/kg
Activity #1a
1) The total supply air for Bump Cleanroom Module in Texas
Instruments Clark is 644,000 cmh from which 30,000 cmh
are used for general exhaust, 55,000 for acid exhaust and
15,000 for solvent exhaust. Pressurization volume needed to
maintain the positive cleanroom pressure is 6,000 cmh. The
return air is cooled through the sensible cooling coils up to
18degC and is mixed with the make-up air in the plenum
before being supplied back to the cleanroom through the
fan-filter units. How much make-up air is needed to maintain
the air cycle in the cleanroom? What is the temperature
needed from the make-up air unit to maintain the Cleanroom
parameters at 21 degC and 50%RH.
Activity #1b
1) The total supply air for Bump Cleanroom Module in Texas
Instruments Clark is 544,000 cmh from which 40,000 cmh
are used for general exhaust, 75,000 for acid exhaust and
20,000 for solvent exhaust. Pressurization volume needed to
maintain the positive cleanroom pressure is 6,000 cmh. The
return air is cooled through the sensible cooling coils up to
18degC and is mixed with the make-up air in the plenum
before being supplied back to the cleanroom through the
fan-filter units. How much make-up air is needed to maintain
the air cycle in the cleanroom? What is the temperature
needed from the make-up air unit to maintain the Cleanroom
parameters at 21 degC and 50%RH.
 Properties of Air
1. Temperature
a. Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT, tdb) is the temperature measured with a standard thermometer
that has no water on its surface.

b. Wet bulb temperature (WBT, twb) is a temperature associated with the moisture content of
the air.

c. Wet bulb depression (dwb) is difference between the dry and wet bulb temperatures.

d. Dew point temperature (DPT, tdp) indicates the temperature at which water will begin to
condense out of moist air.
2. Pressure
Pt = Pv + Pda Pt=total pressure; Pv= partial vapor pressure;
Pa=partial pressure of dry air

3. Humidity Ratio/ Absolute Humidity/ Moisture Content/ Mixing Ratio/

Specific Humidity, w – ratio of mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air.
w= mv / mda
w= 0.622 (Pv / Pda)
w= 0.622 [Pv / (Pt- Pv )]
 Properties of Air
4. Relative humidity (RH) is a measure of the amount of water air can hold at a certain
temperature. It is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in the air to the
saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the air.
RH = Pv / Psat; Pv= partial vapor pressure;
Psat= saturation pressure of dry air found in steam table
5. Specific Volume is the volume of mixture per mass of dry air. The specific volume of
air is basically the reciprocal of air density.
v = V /mda
v = RdaT / Pda = RdaT / (Pt - Pv )
6. Enthalpy is the measure of heat energy in the air due to sensible heat or latent heat. The enthalpy
of the mixture is the sum of the enthalpy of dry air and the enthalpy of the water vapor.
H= CpT + w*hg Cp= specific heat of dry air; T= dry bulb temperature, degC
w= humidity ratio
hg= enthalpy of saturated water vapor at temperature t
7. Degree of Saturation – is the ratio of the air humidity ratio to the humidity
ratio of saturated air at the same temperature.
D= w / wsat D= degree of saturation
w= humidity ratio
wsat= humidity ratio of saturated air
Air Conditioner
- mechanism for comfort cooling that lowers the temperature and reduces the humidity
of air in buildings.

Refrigerating Capacity, Q
Q = m (h1 –h2), kW

Rate of Moisture removal, Mw

MW = m *(w2 – w0), kW

Volume Flow rate, Vr

Vr = m*v1

Sample Problem:
1. Calculate the specific volume of an air-vapor mixture in
cubic meters per kg dry air when the ff conditions prevail: T =
30degC, w=0.015 kgv/kgda, and Pt= 95kPa. Solve for the
Vapor pressure
Sample problems:
2. Compute the humidity ratio of air at 62%
RH and 34 degC when the barometric
pressure is 101.325 kPa. (Psat at 34degC = 5.23
kPa).
3. An air-vapor mixture has a dry bulb
temperature of 30 degC and a humidity ratio
of 0.015. Calculate the enthalpy at 85 kPa
barometric pressure. From steam table: hg at
30degC is 2556.3 kJ/kg.
Sample problems:
4. In an air-conditioning unit, 4.5 m3/s of air
at 27degC DBT, 50% RH and standard
atmospheric air enters the unit. The leaving
condition of the air is 13degC DBT and 90%
RH. Find the refrigerating capacity.
5. The density of air at 35degC and 101 kPa is
1.05 kg/m3. Find the specific humidity.
Sample problems:
6. A certain sample of air has a temperature of 70°F
(saturation pressure of 0.36 psi) and a dew point
temperature of 50°F . The partial pressure of the
water is vapor corresponding to a 50°F dew point
temperature is 0.178 psi. Determine the relative
humidity RH.
7. At 30 °C, air-vapor mixture has a relative humidity
of 75%. Find the humidity ratio if barometric
pressure is 100 kpa. At 30 °C, Psat = 4.246 kPa.
Sample problems:
8. The humidity ratio of air is 0.05. If barometric
pressure is 99 kPa, find the partial pressure of water
vapor.
9. Air at 32 °C and pressure of 101 kPa has a density
of 1.10 kg/m3. Find the humidity ratio of air.

10. Twenty kilogram air enters the dryer at 24 °C db

and 35% RH. Fifteen kg of re-circulated air from
the dryer has a partial pressure of water vapor of 10
kPa. Find the humidity ratio after mixing. At 24 °C
db, 35% RH: w = 0.0059
Air-conditioning Calculations
1. Qs (Sensible heat Load)
Qs = ms*Cp* (T2 – T1)
2. QL (Latent heat Load)
QL = ms* (w2 – w1)*hv; hv = 2442 kJ/kg
3. QT (Total heat Load)
QT = Qs + QL Outside Air/
QT = ms*(h2 – h1) Make-up Air
4. SHR (Sensible Heat Ratio) 3
SHR = Qs / QT Recirculated 2
5. Air Conditioner Capacity, RE Air

RE = ms*(h4 – h1) Conditioned

6. Ventilation Load, VL Air Space
Supply Conditioner
VL = mo*(h3 – h1) Air
7. Air Balance: 4 1
mo*h3 + mr*h2 = ms*h4
8. Bypass Factor, BF
BF = (T2 – Tm) / (T1 – Tm); Tm = mean coil temperature
9. Contact Factor, CF
CF = 1 - BF
Sample Problems
1. An auditorium is to be maintained at a
temperature of 26degC DB and 50% RH.
Air is to be supplied at a temperature not
lower than 15 degC DB. The sensible heat
gain is 110 kW and the latent heat gain is
37.5kW. Take ventilating air as 25% by
weight of the air from the room, and is at
35 degC DB and 60%RH. Determine the
refrigerating capacity in tons.
Sample Problems
2. An assembly hall was to have an air conditioning
unit installed which would be maintained at 26degC
dry bulb and 50% RH. The unit delivers air at 15degC
temperature and the calculated sensible heat load is
170kW and latent heat load is 51.3 kW. Twenty percent
by weight of extracted air is made up of outside air at
34degC DB and 60% RH while 80% is extracted by the
air-conditioner from the assembly hall. Determine the
air conditioner refrigeration capacity in tons of
refrigeration and its ventilation load in kW.
Sample Problems
3. A room being air-conditioned is being
held at 25degC DB and 50%RH. A flow
rate of 5 m3/sec of supply air at 15degC
DB and 80% RH is being delivered to the
room to maintain the steady condition at
100kPa. What is the sensible heat
absorbed from the room in kW?
Midterms
Cooling Tower
- auxiliary equipment to the chiller used to cool condenser water.

1. Range, TR, - the change in temperature of water through the cooling tower
Where:
TR = ta - tb ta = temperature of warm water entering the cooling tower
tb = temperature of cool water leaving the cooling tower
2. Approach, TA, - the difference between the temperature of water leaving the tower
and the wetbulb temperature of air entering the cooling tower
TA = tb - twb Where:
twb = wet bulb temperature of the entering air
3. Cooling Tower Efficiency, - is the cooling effectiveness of the cooling tower
e = (ta – tb ) / (ta – twb) e = (TR) / (TR + TA)

4. make-up water Requirement, mw

mw = (ma – mb) = m1 (w2 –w1)

5. Heat Removed from water, Qr / Heat Absorbed by air, Qa

Qr = ma Cp (ta – tb)
Qa = m1 (h2 –h1)
Sample Problems:
1) 250,000 kg/hr of water at 35degC enters the cooling tower
where it is to be cooled to 17.5 degC. The energy is to be
exchanged with atmospheric air entering the unit at 15
degC and leaving at 30 degC. The air enters at 30% RH
and leaves at 85% RH. If all processes are assumed to
occur at atmospheric pressure, determine the ff:
a. Range (degC)
b. Approach (degC)
c. Cooling Tower Efficiency (%)
d. Heat removed from water (kW)
e. Mass flow rate of air (kg/hr)
f. Amount of make-up water required (kg/hr)
Sample Problems:
2) A 80% efficient cooling tower has a water entering at 45 oC and wet bulb
temperature of air entering at 25 oC. Find the water exit temperature of
water.
3) Water enters the cooling tower at 55 oC and leaves at 30 oC while the heat
rejected to air is 110 KW. Find the capacity of the pump needed to pump the
water in liter per second.
4) A 110 tons refrigeration system with COP of 5 has a condenser which is to
be cooled by means of a cooling tower. Air enters the tower at 25 oC db and
50% RH and leaves at 35 oC db and 80% RH. Find the volume of air needed
m3/hr. At 25oC and 50% RH: h = 50 KJ/kg, v = 0.86 m3/kg; At 35oC db and
80% RH: h = 108
5) A 110 BHP diesel engine has a brake thermal efficiency of 30% and jacket
water loss of 34%. The engine is to be cooled by means of a cooling tower
having a range of 27 oC. Find the mass of water entering the tower.
6) Sixty (60) gpm of water enters a cooling tower at 45 degC. Atmospheric
15degC and 55% RH enters the tower at 6,000 cfm and leaves at 32 degC
saturated. Determine the volume of water that leaves the tower in GPM and
the exit temperature of water, degC. (vf at 45degC = 0.001010 m3/kg)
7) Water at 55 degC is cooled in a cooling tower which has an efficiency of
75%. The temperature of the surrounding air is 32 degC DB and 70% RH.
The heat dissipated from the condenser is 2,300,000 kJ/hr. Find the amount
of water in kg/sec of the pump used in cooling tower.
 Dryer
-equipment used for the removal of relatively small amounts of water
or other liquid from the solid material.
Formulas: Humid air, m3
1. Moisture removed from materials = moisture removed absorbed by air 3
= ma(W3-W2)
= m4-m5
2. Bone dry weight of wet feed = Bone dry weight of dried product
BdW4= BdW5 Drying
1 Chamber
3. Heat supplied in Heater =ma(h2-h1) Fresh air, ma
heater
4. Efficiency of dryer = Heat absorbed by materials 2
Heat Supplied Heated air
4 5
5. Regain = Weight of moisture Dried
Bone dry weight Wet Feed, m4 Product, m5

BONE DRY WEIGHT(BDW) or dry weight is the final constant weight reached by a hygroscopic substance
after being dried out.
REGAIN is the moisture content of a substance expressed as a percentage of the bone-dry weight of the
material.

5. Moisture Content = Weight of moisture

Gross Weight
Weight of Moisture is expressed as a percentage of the gross weight of the body.
Gross Weight = BDW + Weight of Moisture
Sample Problems
1. A rotary dryer produces 12 metric tons
per hour of dried sand containing 0.5%
moisture from a wet feed containing 10%
moisture. Temperature of wet sand is
30°C and that of dried sand is 115°C. Find
the moisture removed per kg/hr.
Sample Problems
2. A dryer has to produce 45 lbs of
dried product with 8% moisture left.
Find the weight of the wet feed if a
quarter of its weight is moisture.
Sample Problems
3. The temperature of the air in a dryer is maintained
constant by the use of steam coils within the dryer.
The product enters the dryer at the rate of 1 metric
ton per hour. The initial moisture content is 3 kg
moisture per kg dry solid and will be dried to a
moisture content of 0.10 kg moisture per kg solid.
Air enters the dryer with a humidity ratio of 0.016 kg
moisture per kg dry air and leaves with 0.152 kg
moisture per kg dry air. Determine the total required
amount of air in kg/hr under entrance condition.
Specific volume of air is 0.968 m3/kg.
Sample Problems
4. Copra enters a dryer containing
60% water and 40% solids and
leaves with 5% water and 95% solids.
Find the weight of the water
removed based on pound of original
product.
Sample Problems
5. Wet material containing 215% moisture(dry
basis) is to be dried at the rate of 1.5kg/s in a
continuous dryer to give a product containing
5% moisture(wet basis). The drying medium
consist of air heated to 373K and containing
water vapor equivalent to a partial pressure of
1.40 kPa. The air leaves the dryer at 310K and
70% saturated. Calculate how much air will be
required to remove the moisture. At 310K and
70% RH, w = 0.029 kgv/kgda.
Finals
(Aircon Lab)
 Sizing Air Conditioning System
- Based on heat gain in a building.
Heat Gain depends on the following:
1. Temperature Difference between outside and the desired
inside temperature – hot vs hotter
2. Type of construction of building envelope (walls, and ceilings)
– Brick vs Glass
3. Orientation to the sun – East/West vs North/South
4. Room size – Big vs small
5. Infiltration
6. Occupants
7. Room Activities
8. Lighting – LED vs Incandescent
9. Appliances, equipments

ESTIMATION: Rule of thumb = 1 ton per 500 ft2

Two Groups publish calculation procedures
for sizing central air conditioners.
 Air Conditioning Contractors of America (ACCA)
 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
 Sources of Cooling Load

External Internal
load load

Externally loaded building vs internally Loaded building

Cooling Load Calculation Method
 Transfer Function Method (TFM): This is the most complex of
the methods proposed by ASHRAE and requires the use of a
computer program or advanced spreadsheet.

 Cooling Load Temperature Differential/Cooling Load Factors

(CLTD/CLF): This method is derived from the TFM method and
uses tabulated data to simplify the calculation process.

 Total Equivalent Temperature Differential/Time-Averaging

(TETD/TA): This was the preferred method for hand or simple
spreadsheet calculation before the introduction of the
CLTD/CLF method.
Design information
1. Outdoor Design Weather Conditions.
2. Indoor Design Conditions and Thermal Comfort
3. Indoor Air Quality and Outdoor Air
Requirements
4. Building Pressurization
5. Building Characteristics
6. Operating Schedules
 Cooling Load Calculation Method
CLTD/ SCL/ CLF Method
CLTD (Cooling Load Temperature Difference)
- Theoretical temperature difference that accounts for the combined
effects of inside and outside air difference, daily temperature range, solar
radiation and heat storage in building mass.
-It is affected by orientation, tilt, month, day, hour, latitude, etc.
CLTD factors are used for adjustment to conductive heat gains from walls,
roof, floor and glass.
CLF (Cooling Load Factor)
- accounts for the fact that all the radiant energy that enters the
conditioned space at a particular time does not become a part of the cooling load
instantly. The CLF values for various surfaces have been calculated as functions of
solar time and orientation and are available in the form of tables in ASHRAE
Handbooks.
- used for adjustment to heat gains from internal loads such as
lights, occupants and power appliances
SCL (Solar Cooling Load Factor)
- used for adjustment to transmission heat gains from glass
Residential Cooling Load Calculations
Residential Cooling Load Calculations
Residential Features:
1. Occupied 24/7
2. Loads are imposed by heat gain through structural
components and by air leakage or ventilation. Internal
loads, particularly those from occupants and lights, are
small in comparison to those in commercial or industrial
structures.
3. Residence is considered 1 zone
4. Small capacity, upto 18kW cooling
Categories of Residences
1. Single-Family Detached - A house in this category
usually has exposed walls in four directions, often more
than one story, and a roof. The cooling system is a single-
zone, unitary system with a single thermostat.
2. Multifamily buildings - Unlike single-family
detached units, multifamily units by definition do not
have exposed surfaces facing in all directions. Rather,
each unit has only one or two exposed surfaces and
possibly a roof. Two exposed walls will be at right angles,
and both east and west walls will not be exposed in a
given living unit.
Load Components
(1) through structural components (walls, floors, and
ceilings).
(2) through windows;
(3) caused by infiltration and ventilation; and
(4) due to occupancy.
Summary of Cooling Loads
 Roof
 Walls
 Doors
 Glass Windows
 People
 Appliances
 Infiltration
 Ducting (if any; usually 10% of total sensible loads)
 Compute total power and flow requirements.
 Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through
Structure (roof, walls, ceilings, doors)
Q = U* A* (CLTD)

Q = cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts

U = coefficient of heat transfer,
BTU/hr-ft2-°F, W/m2-K
U = 1/ R; Values of R are taken from Table 4 Ch24
pp24.4 to 24.6 from 1997 ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbook (SI); pp.471-474
A= area, ft2, m2
CLTD = Cooling Load Temperature
Difference

Note: Tables are based on 24degC indoor

temp and 1.5K indoor temperature swing.
Material Properties
Material Properties
 Cooling Load Due to
Heat Gain Through
Structure (roof, walls,
ceilings, doors)

Q = U* A* (CLTD)

Q = cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts

U = coefficient of heat transfer,
BTU/hr-ft2-°F, W/m2-K
U = 1/ R; Values of R are taken from Table 4 Ch24
pp24.4 to 24.6 from 1997 ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbook (SI); pp.471-474
A= area, ft2, m2

Note: Tables are based on 24degC indoor

temp and 1.5K indoor temperature swing.
Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through Windows
Q = A* (GLF)
Q = cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts
A = area, ft2, m2
GLF = Glass Load Factor, W/m2
Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through Windows
Q = A* (GLF)
Q = cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts
A = area, ft2, m2
GLF = Glass Load Factor, W/m2
Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through partition
Walls to unconditioned Space
Q = U*A* (dT)
Q = cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts
A = area, ft2, m2
U = coefficient of heat transfer,
BTU/hr-ft2-°F, W/m2-K
U = 1/ R; Values of R are taken from
Table 4 Ch24 pp24.4 to 24.6
from 1997 ASHRAE
Fundamentals Handbook (SI);
pp.471-474
dT = temperature difference across
the partition
 Cooling Load Due to Heat Gain Through
Infiltration
Q = 1.2*Vr*dT (from Q = mCpdT)
Q = cooling Load, Watts
Vr = volume flow rate, liter/sec
Vr = ACH * (room volume) * 1000/3600; ACH = air changes per hour
dT = temperature difference across the partition

Tight: Good multifamily construction with close-fitting doors, windows, and framing; new house
Medium: average fit windows and doors; Below average multifamily construction falls in this category.
Loose: poorly constructed single- and multifamily residences with poorly fitted windows and doors.
Internal Loads
 Occupants:

 Appliances
Summarize Cooling Loads
 Roof
 Walls
 Doors
 Glass Windows
 People
 Appliances
 Infiltration
 Ducting (if any; usually 10% of total sensible loads)
 Compute total power and flow requirements.
External Cooling Loads
- The external loads consist of heat transfer by conduction through the building walls,
roof, floor, doors etc, heat transfer by radiation through fenestration such as windows
and skylights.

1. Roof:
Q = U* A* (CLTDcorrected)
Q = cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts
U = coefficient of heat transfer,
BTU/hr-ft2-°F, W/m2-K
U = 1/ R; Values of R are taken from Table 4 Ch24 pp24.4 to 24.6
from 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook (SI);
A = roof area, ft2, m2
CLTDcorrected = corrected cooling load
temperature difference, °F, °C (CLTD values are taken
from the table from ASHRAE Ch28 at conditions: Mean
temperature of 29.5°C, Temperature daily range of 11.6°C
& Maximum outdoor Temperature of 35°C)
 …Roof Heat Load Calculation
CLTDcorrected = CLTD + (25.5 – Tr) + (Tm – 29.4), °C
where:
CLTD = cooling load temperature difference taken
from chapter 28 of AHSRAE fundamentals handbook. Determine
roof construction and overall heat transfer coefficient (U)
Tr = desired room temperature for the building, °C
Tm= mean temperature, °C
Tm= Tmax – Tdr/2
Tmax = maximum outside temperature in the area,
°C
Tdr = temperature daily range (Tmax – Tmin), °C
R C
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
CLTD Table, degC

Roof
Numbers R
 Roof
CLTD Table R
Description
Roof Heat Load Calculation
The room has to be maintained at 21°C from a maximum
outside temperature of 35°C with daily temperature
range of 8°C. Find the heat load in Watts through the
roof of the 6m by 5m by 3m room (L x W x H) given
the ff parameters below:
CLTDroof = 45°C
Rroof = 5.7 m2-K/Watt
 Roof
Numbers
 Roof
Numbers
…External Cooling Loads
2a. Walls (other than glass)
Q = U* A* (CLTDcorrected)
Q = cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts
U = coefficient of heat transfer,
BTU/hr-ft2-°F, W/m2-K
U = 1/ R
A = wall area, ft2, m2
CLTDcorrected = corrected cooling load
temperature difference, °F, °C (CLTD values are taken
from the table from ASHRAE Ch28 at conditions: Mean
temperature of 29.4°C, Temperature daily range of 11.6°C
& Maximum outdoor Temperature of 33°C)
 Wall Heat Load Calculation
CLTDcorrected = CLTD + (25.5 – Tr) + (Tm – 29.4), °C
where:
CLTD = taken from ASHRAE Ch28 table based on
Wall construction material, °C:
Tr = desired room temperature for the building, °C
Tm= mean temperature, °C
Tm= Tmax – Tdr/2
Tmax = maximum outside temperature in the area,
°C
Tdr = temperature daily range (Tmax – Tmin), °C
External Cooling Loads
2b. Walls (glass), Qt = Qc + QR
Qc = U* A* (CLTDcorrected)
Qc = conductive cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts
U = coefficient of heat transfer through the
glass area , BTU/hr-ft2-°F, W/m2-K
U = 1/ R
A = glass wall area, ft2, m2
CLTDcorrected = corrected cooling load
temperature difference, °F, °C (CLTD values are taken
from the table from ASHRAE Ch28 at conditions: Mean
temperature of 29.4°C, Temperature daily range of 11.6°C
& Maximum outdoor Temperature of 33°C)
External Cooling Loads
2b. Walls (glass), Qt = Qc + QR
QR = SCL* SF* A
QR = radiation/solar cooling Load, BTU/hr,
Watts
SCL = solar cooling load factor of glass
window, BTU/hr-ft2, W/m2 (given in the ASHRAE
table)
SF = shading factor of glass window (given in
the ASHRAE table)
A = glass wall area, ft2, m2
Concrete Wall Heat Load Calculation
The room has to be maintained at 21°C from a maximum
outside temperature of 35°C with daily temperature range
of 8°C. Find the heat load in Watts through the concrete
wall of the 6m by 5m by 3m room (L x W x H) given the ff
parameters below. The wall is 65% concrete and 35%
glass window. The window is situated along the length of
the room.

SCLwindow= 380 W/m2 SFwindow= 0.5

CLTDwindow= 9 K Uwindow= 3 W/K-m2
Areawindow = 35% of the wall dimension CLTDconcrete= 40
Kelvin Uconcrete= 0.8 W/K-m2
Areaconcrete = 65% of the wall dimension
Glass Wall Heat Load Calculation
The room has to be maintained at 21°C from a maximum
outside temperature of 35°C with daily temperature range
of 8°C. Find the heat load in Watts through the glass
window of the 6m by 5m by 3m room (L x W x H) given
the ff parameters below. The wall is 65% concrete and
35% glass window. The window is situated along the
length of the room.

SCLwindow= 380 W/m2 SFwindow= 0.5

CLTDwindow= 9 K Uwindow= 3 W/K-m2
Areawindow = 35% of the wall dimension CLTDconcrete= 40
Kelvin Uconcrete= 0.8 W/K-m2
Areaconcrete = 65% of the wall dimension
Internal Cooling Loads
1. Partition Walls
Q = U* A* (Ta - Td)
Q = cooling Load, BTU/hr, Watts
U = coefficient of heat transfer through the
partition wall, BTU/hr-ft2-°F, W/m2-K
A = partition wall area, ft2, m2
Ta= temperature of adjusted space, °C
Td = inside design temeprature, °C
Internal Cooling Loads
2. Occupants
Qt = Qsensible + Qlatent
Qt = (N x Qs X CLF) + (N x Ql)
where:
Qt= total cooling load of occupants
Qs=Sensible heat gain from occupant
Ql=Latent heat gain form occupant
N= total number of occupants
CLF= Cooling Load factor
CLF= 1 (for 24 hrs. of operation, cooling is off during night
or weekends)
Occupants Rate of heat Gain
Internal Cooling Loads
3. Lightings
Q= W x FUT x FSA x CLF
where:
W= watts rating of lighting
FUT= Lighting use factor, as appropriate
FSA= Special Ballast Allowance Factor, as appropriate
CLF= cooling load factor by hours f occupancy (Ashrae
Ch28 Table 38)
end
AIRCONDITIONING
SYSTEM DESIGN
AIRCONDITIONING SYSTEM DESIGN
 Direct Expansion System
 Package Terminal Air Conditioners (PTAC)/ Window Type
 Package Roof-top Unit (RTU)
 Split System
 Chilled Water System
 Air-cooled
 Water-cooled
 Evaporative Cooling System

AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

 Variable Air Volume (VAV) System
 Constant Volume System
DX (Direct Expansion) AC System
A direct expansion air conditioning (DX) system uses a
refrigerant vapor expansion/compression (RVEC) cycle
to directly cool the supply air to an occupied space.

DX systems (both packaged and split) directly cools

the air supplied to the building because the evaporator
is in direct contact with the supply air.
DX (Direct Expansion) AC System
Package Rooftop Unit
Chilled Water AC System
A chilled water system also use the basic refrigeration
cycle but instead cooling the air directly, chilled water
system cools water which in turn use to cool the air.

The condenser side of the chilled water system can be

air-cooled or water cooled.
Air-Cooled Chilled Water AC System
Water-Cooled Chilled Water AC System
Air-cooled vs Water-cooled Chiller
Evaporative Cooling System

Evaporative air conditioning uses evaporation to cool the air. In an

evaporative cooler, a pump circulates water from the reservoir on to a cooling
pad, which in turn becomes very wet. A fan draws air from outside the unit
through the moistened pad. As it passes through the pad the air is cooled by
evaporation.
Variable Air Volume System
- Type of air distribution system which varies the volume
of air-conditioned air deliver to the space. The volume
is based on the temperature sensor in the room.
Types of AC Clients
- Important factor in choosing appropriate HVAC
System.

 Developer – choose HVAC system mainly by its first

Cost (Capital Cost)
 Owner - prefer HVAC system that is energy efficient,
easy to maintain and that will last a long time.
Project Size
- Another indicator of determining right HVAC System.

 DX System – smaller projects (low first cost and low

maintenance)
 Air-cooled Chilled Water System – 100 to 250 tons of
cooling capacity; energy savings outweigh the first cost
and maintenance cost of DX system.
 Water-cooled Chilled Water System – more than 250
tons.
Project Type
- Has significant bearing in HVAC design.

 Office buildings – uses VAV system (varying occupant

thermal comfort)
 Retailer store – uses constant volume distribution
system (same thermal loading all throughout)
HVAC System Selection Guide
HVAC System Selection Guide
Other sources
http://servicesconsultant.blogspot.com/2011/03/hvac-
design-selecting-air-conditioning_08.html