2

The Euclidean 𝐄
Def. Let P,Q denote points in ℝ2 .
d(P,Q) = 𝑄 − 𝑃 distance between P and Q

Ex. Let P=(4,-1) and Q=(-2,5). Then, d(P,Q)= −6,6 =6 2.

Exercise: Let P=(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ), Q=(𝑦1 , 𝑦2 )

Show d (P,Q) = 𝑦1 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑥2 2

𝐄 2 = ℝ2 with distance function d

Theo. 2.1
Let P,Q,R denote points in ℝ2 . Then,

i. d(P,Q) ≥ 0
ii. d(P,Q) = 0 iff P=Q.
iii. d(P,Q) = d(Q,P).
iv. d(P,Q) + d(Q,R) ≥ d(P,R)

Proof:
i. d(P,Q) = 𝑄 − 𝑃 ≥ 0 Theo. 1.3 (i)
Theo. 2.1 (Proof)

ii. d(P,Q) = 0 ↔ 𝑄 − 𝑃 = 0
↔𝑄−𝑃 =0
↔ Q=P

iii. d(P,Q) = 𝑄 − 𝑃 = −(𝑃 − 𝑄)

= −1(𝑃 − 𝑄)
= −1 𝑃 − 𝑄
= 𝑃−𝑄
= d(Q,P)
Theo. 2.1 (Proof)
iv. d(P,Q) + d(Q,R) ≥ d(P,R)
d(P,R) = 𝑅 − 𝑃
= 𝑅−𝑃+𝑄−𝑄
= 𝑅−𝑄+𝑄−𝑃
= 𝑅−𝑄+𝑄−𝑃 ≤ 𝑅−𝑄 + 𝑄−𝑃 by Cor. to CS Ineq.
∴ d(P,R) ≤ d(P,Q) + d(Q,R).

(Equality holds iff Q-P and R-Q are proportional with a nonnegative
proportionality factor.)
Rem: Theo. 2.1 makes 𝐄 2 a metric space.
Def. Let V be a nonzero vector and let P be a point

i. [V] = {tV/ t ∊ ℝ} called the direction of V

ii. l = P +[V] line through P with direction [V]

We call V a direction of line l.

Ex. If V = (2,3) and P=(4,-1), then
[(2,3)] = set of all vectors proportional to (2,3)
3
= {(2,3), (4,6), (-2,-3), (0,0), (1, ),…}
2

3
Observe : [(2,3)] = [(4,6)] = [(-2,-3)] = [(1, )] points that are
2
collinear
l = (4,-1) + [(2,3)]
3
= (4,-1) + {(2,3), (4,6), (-2,-3), (0,0), (1, ),…}
2
1
= {(6,2), (8,5), (2,-4), (4,-1), (5, ),…}
2

Exercise:
A.Determine if the ff. points are on l = (1,-2) + [(3,2)]
1. (0,0) 2. (1,-2) 3. (3,2) 4. (7,2) 5. (-5,-6)
B. Use the definition to get two other points on l in part A.
C. Sketch the line in part A and the line l’ = (2,5) + [(-6,-4)]
Solution:
l = P+[V] = P+ {tV/ t ∊ ℝ}= {P+ tV/ t ∊ ℝ}
Note: Q ∊ l ↔ Q = P+ tV/ t ∊ ℝ

1. (0,0) ∊ l ↔ (0,0) = (1,-2) + t(3,2)

(0,0) = (1+3t,-2+2t)
∴ 1 + 3𝑡 = 0; −2+2t = 0
1
t =- ; t =1
3
1
But , - ≠1
3
∴ (0,0) ∉ l.
B. Solution:
1. Take t=-1
(1,-2) -1(3,2) = (-2,-4) ∊ l

2. Take t = 3
(1,-2) +3(3,2) = (10,4) ∊ l
Question: If P +[V] = Q +[W], how are P and Q related? How are [V]
and [W] related?

Theo.2.2
Let P,Q denote distinct points of 𝐄2 . Then, there is a unique line
containing P and Q.
Proof:
Since P and Q are distinct points, the vector Q-P is nonzero.
i. Existence
Claim: The line l = P +[Q-P] contains P and Q.
Proof of Claim: P = P + 0 [Q-P]
Q = P + 1 [Q-P]
Theo. 2.2 (Proof)
ii. Uniqueness
Suppose l’ = R+[V] contains P and Q.
Then, P = P + tV for some t∊ ℝ.
Q = P + sV for some s∊ ℝ.
→ 𝑄 − 𝑃 = 𝑠 − 𝑡 𝑉, 𝑠 − 𝑡 ∊ ℝ
→ 𝑄 − 𝑃 = [𝑉]
(Note : V is nonzero. Otherwise P=Q.)
Since, P is on l’, then l’ = R+[V] = P+[V] = P+[Q-P]= l
The line through distinct points P and is denoted by PQ.
Exercise: Let P =(1,3) and Q(5,2). Find the line PQ.
Solution:
PQ = P+[Q-P]
= (1,3) + [(5,2)-(1,3)]
= (1,3) + [(4,-1)]

Is PQ = Q + [Q-P]?
Is PQ = P+[Q-P]?
Is PQ = Q+[P-Q]?

Observe: l= P+[Q-P]= {P+t(Q-P)/t∊ℝ}

= {(1-t)P+tQ/t ∊ ℝ}
Theo. 2.3
Let P, X, Q denote distinct points of 𝐄 2 . X is between P and Q iff
d(P,X)+d(X,Q)=d(P,Q).
Proof:
(→) Assume that X is between P and Q.
Then, X = (1-t)P+tQ where 0<t<1.
Now,
d(P,X) = 𝑋 − 𝑃 = (1−t)P+tQ − 𝑃 = 𝑡(𝑄 − 𝑃) = 𝑡 𝑄 − 𝑃 .
And
d(X,Q) = 𝑄 − 𝑋 = Q − (1−t)P−tQ = (1 − 𝑡)(𝑄 − 𝑃)
= 1−𝑡 𝑄−𝑃 .
So, d(P,X)+d(X,Q) = 𝑡 𝑄 − 𝑃 + 1 − 𝑡 𝑄 − 𝑃 = 𝑄 − 𝑃 =d(P,Q).
Def. If X = (1-t)P +tQ for some t ∊ ℝ, 0<t<1, we say X is between P
and Q.

Ex. Let P = (2,3) and Q=(-2,-1). Show that X =(1,2) lies between P
and Q.
Solution: X = (1-t)P+tQ
(1,2) = (1-t) (2,3) + t(-2,-1)
(1,2) = ((1-t)2,(1-t)3) + (-2t,-t)
(1,2) = ((2-2t),(3-3t)) + (-2t,-t)
(1,2) = (2-4t,3-4t)
∴ 2-4t = 1 3-4t = 2
1 1
t= t=
4 4
1
Since 0< < 1 then X is between P and Q.
4
Theo.2.3(Proof Cont.)
(←) Assume X satisfies d(P,X)+d(X,Q)=d(P,Q).
By Theo. 2.1(iv),
X-P=s(Q-X) for some s ∊ℝ, s≥0 (𝛼)
Solving for X, 1+s ≥ 1
(1+s)X=P+sQ
1 𝑠
X= P+ Q (1+s ≠ 0)
1+𝑠 1+𝑠
𝑠
Set t =
1+𝑠

Claim: 0<t<1
Theo.2.3(Proof Cont.)
If t=0 then s=0, which implies X=P using (𝛼). This is a contradiction
since X,P are distinct. Thus, t ≠ 0. In fact, t>0 since s>0 and 1+s>0.
𝑠
If t ≥ 1 we have ≥ 1 which implies 0 ≥ 1 (contradiction).
1+𝑠
Thus, t<1.
𝑠 1
Note: 1-t = 1 - = .
1+𝑠 1+𝑠

Thus, X = (1-t)P+tQ where 0<t<1.

∴ X is between P and Q.
Def. Let P, Q denote distinct points of 𝐄 2 . The set consisting of P, Q
and all points between them denoted 𝑃𝑄 is called a segment.

1
M is called the midpoint of 𝑃𝑄 if M = (P+Q).
2
1
In this case, d(P,M)=d(M,Q)= d(P,Q).
2

Exercise: Determine the midpoint of 𝑃𝑄 if P=(7,-3) and Q=(5,-9).

1 1
Solution: M = (P+Q) = ((7,-3)+(5,-9)) = (6,-6)
2 2
Exercise:

1. Let P,X,Q denote distinct points of 𝐄 2 . If X is between P and Q,

𝑑(𝑃,𝑋) 𝑡
show that = , for some t ∊ ℝ, 0<t<1.
𝑑(𝑋,𝑄) 1−𝑡
2. Use 1 to find a point X that divides 𝑃𝑄 in the ratio 2:3 where
P=(-3,5) and Q=(8,4).
Theo. 2.4
Any two distinct lines have at most one point of intersection.

Proof:
Let 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 be two distinct lines in the plane. Suppose 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 have
more than one point of intersection. Let P, Q denote two of these
points of intersection. By Theo. 2.2, 𝑙1 = 𝑙2 .