Mathematics - I (MATH F111) : BITS Pilani

Mathematics – I
(MATH F111)
BITS Pilani Dr. Tarkeshwar Singh
Department of Mathematics
K K Birla Goa Campus
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

BITS Pilani
K K Birla Goa Campus
Section 10.1:
Sequences
Text Book & Instructors
• Thomas’ Calculus
• By Maurice D. Weir, Joel Hass,
• Pearson Education 12th Edition, 2016.
• Amit Setia, Himadri Mukharjee, Pradeep
Boggarapu, Anushaya Mohapatra.
• Ashish Kr.Nandi, Ritu Dhankhar, Saroj
Kr.Panda, Arindam Das, Fathima Safikaa,
Jintendra Kr. Senaparti, Pabitra Kr. Pradhan
3
Evaluation Schemes
Sl. No. Evaluation Components Duration Weightage Nature
(%)
1 Mid-term Test 1 hour 30 min 30 Closed Book
03/10/19, Thursday 11:00 AM - 12:30 PM
2 Comprehensive exam 3 hours 40 Closed Book
05/12/19 (FN) 09:00AM - 12:00Noon
Thursday
Announced Quiz-1
21/09/19, (Saturday) 2:00PM-3:00PM
1 hour 30
3 Announced Quiz-2 Open Book
16/11/19 (Saturday)
Surprise
Assignments/Quizzes Lecture Tutorial
BITS-Pilani Goa 4
Sequences
• The term sequence is used to suggest a succession of
objects or events given in a specified order.
• A sequence is an ordered list of objects (or events).
• Like a set, it contains objects (also called elements or

terms) and the number of terms (possibly infinite) is
called the length of the sequence.
• Unlike a set, order matters and the same element can

appear multiple times at different positions.
BITS-Pilani Goa 5
Sequences …
• Hence, a sequence may be denoted as a list of numbers

written in a definite order
a1, a2, ..., an, …
where the term a1 is called the first term, a2 is the
second term, and in general an is the nth term.
• We will deal exclusively with infinite sequence and so

each term an will have a successor an+1.
BITS-Pilani Goa 6
Sequences …
• Definition:
A sequence or infinite sequence is a function whose
domain is the set of positive integers;

• {a }
n n 1 or < an > is an alternative notation for the
function
f(n) = an, n = 1, 2, 3, ….
BITS-Pilani Goa 7
Graphs of sequences
• Because sequences are functions, we may think about the

graph of a sequence. For example, the graph of the sequence
1/ n is the graph of the equation y = 1/n, n =1, 2, …

n 1
BITS-Pilani Goa 8
Limit of a Sequence
 
  1  n
  n 
1       
  2  n 1  n  1n1
BITS-Pilani Goa 9
Limit of a Sequence ...

 n 1  n  1  
(1) 
n 
n 1


(  1)  
 n  n 1
BITS-Pilani Goa 10
Limit of a Sequence …
• A sequence {an} converges to a limit L if for any

positive number , there is a point in the sequence after
that all terms lie between the line y = L+  and y = L- .
• That is, a sequence {an} converges to a limit L if the

terms in the sequence eventually become arbitrarily close
to L.
BITS-Pilani Goa 11
Limit of a sequence … (Definition)
• A sequence {an} is said to converge to the limit L if given any  > 0,

there is a positive integer N such that for all n,
n  N  | an  L |   ,
and in this case we write lim an  L.
n 
• A sequence that does not converge to a finite limit is said to diverge.

or
• If there no such L exists, then we say that sequence {an} diverges.
BITS-Pilani Goa 12
Limit of a sequence … (Definition)
• The sequence {an} idiverges to infinity if for

every number M there is an integer N such that
n > N, an > M.
BITS-Pilani Goa 13
Subsequences
• If the terms of one sequence appear in another sequence in their

given order, we call the first sequence a subsequence of the
second.
Properties of subsequences:
• If a sequence {an} converges to L, then all of its subsequences

converge to L.
• If any subsequence of a sequence {an} diverges or if two
subsequences have different limits, then {an} diverges.
BITS-Pilani Goa 14
Rules
• Let {an} and {bn} be two sequences of real numbers and let A and
B be real numbers. The following holds if
lim an  A and lim bn  B.
n  n 
Sum Rule lim(an  bn )  A  B

n 
Difference Rule lim(an  bn )  A  B

n 
Product Rule lim(an  bn )  A  B

n 
Constant Multiple Rule lim(k  bn )  k  B

n 
 an  A
Quotient Rule lim    if B  0.
n  b
 n B
BITS-Pilani Goa 15
Rules…
• Remark: Every nonzero multiple of a divergent sequence {an}

diverges.
• The Sandwich Theorem for Sequences: Let {an}, {bn} and {cn}
be sequences of real numbers. If an ≤ bn ≤ cn holds for all n
beyond some index N and if
lim an  lim cn  L
n  n 
then lim bn  L also.

n 
BITS-Pilani Goa 16
Rules…
• Let {an} be a sequence of real numbers. If an → L and

if f is a function that is continuous at L and defined at all
an, then f(an) → f(L).
 {21/n}
 {(n+1)/n}1/2
BITS-Pilani Goa 17
Using L’Hopital’s Rule
• Suppose that f(x) is a function (real valued not necessarily

continuous) defined for all x ≥ n0, and that {an} is a sequence
of real numbers such that an = f(n), for all n ≥ n0. Then
lim f ( x)  L  lim an  L.
x  n 
BITS-Pilani Goa 18
Some standard limits
lim nc  , (c any positive real number)

n 
lim nc  0, (c is any negative real number)

n 
lim a n  0, (a is any real number s.t. | a | 1)

n 
{an } does not converge if | a | 1

lim a1/ n  1, (a is any pogitive real number)
n 
BITS-Pilani Goa 19
Some standard limits…
lim n1/ n  1
n 
ln n
lim 0
n  n
n
 c
lim  1    e c
(c is any real),
n   n
an
lim  0, (a is any real)
n  n !
BITS-Pilani Goa 20
Sequences …
• A sequence {an} may be increasing/decreasing or strictly

increasing/strictly decreasing.
• A sequence that is either decreasing or increasing is called

monotone.
• A sequence that is either strictly decreasing or strictly increasing is

called strictly monotone.
BITS-Pilani Goa 21
Bounded sequence
• A sequence {an} is bounded from above if there exists a

number M such that an ≤ M for all n.
• If M is an upper bound for {an} but no number less than

M is an upper bound for {an}, then M is the least upper
bound for {an}.
• Remark: A nondecreasing sequence that is bounded

from above always has a least upper bound.
BITS-Pilani Goa 22
Convergence of Sequences …
Proposition:
If a sequence converges, it has both an upper bound and
a lower bound.
Remark: What about the converse??
i.e.,
Question: Is every bounded sequence convergent?
BITS-Pilani Goa 23
Some Important Results….
• A non-decreasing sequence of real numbers converges

if and only if it is bounded from above.
Further, if a non-decreasing sequence converges, it
converges to its least upper bound.
The Monotonic Sequence Theorem:
If a sequence {an} is both bounded and monotonic,
then the sequence converges.
BITS-Pilani Goa 24
Infinite series
• We want to discuss sums that contain infinitely many

terms.
• Most familiar of such occur in the decimal representation
of real numbers.
• Example: We write 1/3 in decimal form i.e.
1/3 = 0.33333333………
= 0.3 + 0.03 + 0.003 + 0.0003 + ……
which suggests that the decimal representation of 1/3 can
be as a sum of infinitely many terms.
BITS-Pilani Goa 25
Infinite series …
• Definition: An infinite series is an expression that can
be written in the form

u
k 1
k  u1  u2  u3   uk 
the numbers u1, u2, u3,… are called the terms of the
series.
• It is physically impossible to add infinitely many terms
together.
• Therefore, sums of infinite series are defined and
computed by an indirect limiting process.
BITS-Pilani Goa 26
Infinite series …
• Motivated by the example, we are now ready to define
the general concept of the sum of the infinite series.
• Let sn denote the sum of the first n terms of the series.
Thus, s u1 1
s2  u1  u2
s3  u1  u2  u3
n
sn  u1  u2   un   uk
k 1
BITS-Pilani Goa 27
Infinite series … Partial sums
• The number sn is called the nth partial sum of the series

and the sequence {sn} is called the sequence of partial
sums.
• As n increases, the partial sum sn includes more and
more terms of the series.
• Thus, if sn tends towards a limit L as n → ∞, it is
reasonable to view of this limit as the sum of all the
terms in the series.
• Therefore, we have the following definition.
BITS-Pilani Goa 28
Convergence of the infinite series
• Let {sn} be the sequence of partial sums of the series

u1 + u2 + u3+ ∙∙∙ + uk+ ∙∙∙. If the sequence {sn}
converges to a limit S, then the series is said to be
convergent and S is called the sum of the series. We
denote this by writing

S   uk
k 1
• If the sequence of partial sums diverges, then the series

is said to be divergent. A divergent series has no sum.
BITS-Pilani Goa 29
Convergence of the infinite series
• Given a series, we would like to know whether it

converges or diverges.
• If it converges, we would like to know the sum.
• However, this is possible in very few cases like
geometric series and telescoping series.
BITS-Pilani Goa 30
Geometric series
• A geometric series is one of the form


a  ar  ar  ar 
2 3
 ar k 1
   ar k 1
k 1
where a and r are fixed real numbers and a ≠ 0. r is

called the ratio of the series (r can be positive or
negative).
BITS-Pilani Goa 31
Convergence of the geometric series
• A geometric series a  ar  ar 2  ar 3   ar k 1  (a  0)
converges if | r | < 1 and diverges if | r | ≥ 1.
• If the series converges, then the sum of the series is


a
 ar
k 1
k 1

1 r
, | r |  1.
BITS-Pilani Goa 32
Telescoping series

• A series  ak is said to be telescoping if an= bn – bn+1 for
k 1
some sequence bn.
• If a series is as above, then the nth partial sum is
sn = a1 + a2 + a3 +……+ an
= (b1 – b2) + (b2 – b3) +……+(bn – bn+1)
= b1 – bn+1
• Thus the given series converges/diverges accordingly as
sn or bn converges/diverges.
BITS-Pilani Goa 33
Divergent series
• Geometric series with |r| ≥ 1 are not only series to

diverge. For example:

k 2 Divergent as the partial sum grow beyond every

1. number L, After n=1, partial sum sn is greater
k 1 then n2.
k 1

2. 
Diverges as the partial sum eventually outgrow
every preassigned number. Each term is greater
k 1 k than 1, so the partial sum is grater than n.
BITS-Pilani Goa 34
Infinite series
• Unfortunately, formula like the one for the sum of a

convergent geometric series and telescoping series are
rare.
• It is relatively rare that the nth partial sum of a series can
be written in closed form for most of the series.
• Therefore, we use convergence test to examine the
convergence or divergence of a series.
BITS-Pilani Goa 35
The nth term test for divergence
• Theorem:

(a) If lim an  0, then the series
n 
a
n 1
n diverges.

(b) If lim an  0, then the series
n 
a
n 1
n may either
converge or diverge.
(Alternative form of (a): If the series Σ an converges,

then an → 0. )
BITS-Pilani Goa 36
Algebraic properties of infinite series
If Σ an = A and Σ bn = B are convergent series, then
1.Sum rule :  ( a  b )  a   b  A  B
n n n n
2.Difference rule :  ( a  b )  a   b  A  B
n n n n
3.Constant multiple rule :  ka  k  a  kA (for any number k )

n n
Prove ??
BITS-Pilani Goa 37
Adding or deleting terms
• The convergence is not affected when a finite number

of terms is deleted or added from the beginning of a
convergent series.
• In this case, the sum of a convergent series is changed

by the removal or addition of these terms.
BITS-Pilani Goa 38
Re-indexing
• As long as we preserve the order of its terms, we can
reindex any series without altering its convergence.
• Example:
  
1 1 1

n 0 2
n
, 2
n4
n4
or even 2
n 4
n4
.
• The partial sums remain same no matter what indexing

we choose.
BITS-Pilani Goa 39
Non-decreasing partial sums
• Recall the nondecreasing sequence theorem:

A nondecreasing sequence of real numbers {sn} i.e. s1 ≤
s2 ≤ … ≤ sn ≤ … converges if and only if it is bounded
from above.
• We can apply the above theorem where sn is the nth
partial sum of the series Σ an, an ≥ 0.
• If an ≥ 0, we have sn – sn-1 ≥ 0 for all n and hence the
sequence of partial sums is nondecreasing.
• Therefore, applying the above theorem, we have
BITS-Pilani Goa 40
Nondecreasing partial sums…
• Corollary:
A series Σ an of nonnegative terms converges iff
its partial sums are bounded above.
BITS-Pilani Goa 41
Integral Test
 
1 1
• The expressions 
n 1 n 2
and  x 2
dx
1
are related in that the integrand in the improper integral

results when
• The index n in the general form of the series is replaced
by x and
• The limits of summation in the series are replaced by the
corresponding limits of integration.
BITS-Pilani Goa 42
Integral Test…
• Following theorem shows the relationship between the
convergence of the series and the integral.
• Theorem on Integral Test:
Let {an} be a sequence of positive terms. Suppose that
an = f(n), where f is a continuous, positive and
decreasing function of x for all x ≥ N (N is a positive
 
integer). Then the series
a
n N
n and theintegral  f ( x) dx
N
both converge or both diverge.
BITS-Pilani Goa 43
Integral Test…
• Remark:
The series and integral need not have the same value in
the convergent case.
BITS-Pilani Goa 44
Integral Test…
• Convergence of p-series:

1 1 1 1 1
The p-series 
n 1 n
p
 p p p
1 2 3
 p
n
(p is a real constant) converges if p > 1 and diverges if
0 < p ≤ 1.
BITS-Pilani Goa 45
Direct Comparison Test
Let Σ an be series with no negative terms.
a) Σ an converges if there is a convergent series Σ cn with
an ≤ cn for all n > N, for some integer.
b) Σ an diverges if there is a divergent series of non-
negative terms Σ dn with an ≥ dn for all n > N for some
integer N.
Remark: to apply the test, we need to have on hand a list
of series whose convergence or divergence we know.
BITS-Pilani Goa 46
Limit Comparison Test
Suppose that an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n ≥ N, (N an integer)

1. If lim an  c, c  0, then Σ an and Σ bn both converge of
n  bn
both diverge.
an
2. If lim
n 
 0, and Σ bn converges, then Σ an converges.
bn
a
3. If lim n  , and Σ bn diverges, then Σ an diverges.
n  b
n
BITS-Pilani Goa 47
The Ratio Test
• Let Σ an be a series with positive terms, and suppose
that a
lim n 1

n  an
Then
a. the series converges if ρ < 1.
b. the series diverges if ρ >1 or ρ is infinite.
c. test fails if ρ = 1.
BITS-Pilani Goa 48
The nth-Root Test
• Let Σ an be a series with positive terms and suppose

that 1
lim n an  lim(an ) n  
n  n 
Then
a. the series converges if ρ < 1.
b. the series diverges if ρ >1 or ρ is infinite.
c. test fails if ρ = 1.
BITS-Pilani Goa 49
Alternating Series
• A series in which the terms are alternatively positive and
negative is an alternating series.
• For example: 1  1  1  1   (1) n 1 
1 1 1 n 1 1
1      (1) 
2 3 4 n
1 1 1 1 n 1 1
 2  3  4   (1) n

2 2 2 2 2

• In general,
 (
k 1
1) k 1
ak  a1  a2  a3  a4 
BITS-Pilani Goa 50
Leibniz’s Theorem

The series  (
n 1
1) n 1
ak  a1  a2  a3  a4 
converges if all three of the following conditions are

satisfied:
1. The an’s are all positive (i.e. an ≥ 0 for all n).
2. an ≥an+1 for all n ≥ N, for some integer N.
3. an → 0.
BITS-Pilani Goa 51
Absolute Convergence
• A series Σ an converges absolutely (or is said to

be absolutely convergent) if the corresponding
series of absolute values Σ |an| is convergent.
BITS-Pilani Goa 52
Conditionally Convergent Series
• A series that converges but does not converges

absolutely is called conditionally convergent series.
BITS-Pilani Goa 53
The Absolute Convergence Test
• If Σ |an| converges, then Σ an converges.
In other words, if a series converges absolutely, then it

converges.
Remark: If Σ|an| diverges, no conclusion can be drawn

about the convergence or divergence of Σ an.
BITS-Pilani Goa 54
Power Series
• We often write a function as infinite polynomials such

as 1/1-x = 1 + x + x2 + … + xn + …
• As in case of infinite series for convergence or
divergence, we can study the infinite polynomials.
• Infinite polynomials are called as power series (here, x
is a variable).
• Like polynomials, power series can be added,
subtracted, multiplied, differentiated and integrated to
give new power series.
BITS-Pilani Goa 55
Power Series and Convergence
• A power series about x = 0 is a series of the form

n
c x
n 0
n
 c0  c1 x  c2 x 2
  cn x n 
• A power series about x = a is a series of the form


n
c (
n 0
x  a ) n
 c0  c1 ( x  a )  c2 ( x  a ) 2
  cn ( x  a) n 
in which a is the center and c0, c1, … , cn, … are

constants
BITS-Pilani Goa 56

Power Series
x
n 0
n
 1 x  x  x 
2 3
x  n
Remark: Here, think of the partial sums of the series on the right as polynomials
Pn(x) that approximate the function on the left.
BITS-Pilani Goa 57
Convergence Test for Power Series
1. Use Ratio Test or n-th Root Test to find the interval
where the series converges absolutely. This is an open
interval |x – a| < R or a – R < x < a + R.
2. If the interval of absolute convergence is finite, test
for convergence or divergence at the end points.
(Remark: Ratio Test or n-th Root Test never be used
for convergence at the end points. Why ??)
3. If the interval of absolute convergence is |x – a| < R,
the series diverges for |x – a| > R.
BITS-Pilani Goa 58
The radius of convergence
A power series Σ cn (x-a)n behaves in one of the following

three ways:
1. There is a positive number R s.t. the series diverges for
|x – a| > R but converges absolutely for |x – a| < R .
(The series may of may not converge at the end points)
2. The series converges absolutely for every x (R = ∞).
3. The series converges at x = a and diverges elsewhere
(R = 0).
BITS-Pilani Goa 59
The radius of convergence…
• The set of points at which the series converges is a finite
interval, called the interval of convergence and the
convergence is absolute at every point in the interior of the
interval.
• R is called the radius of convergence of the series.
• a + R is the least upper bound of the set of points at which the
series converges.
• If a power series converges absolutely for all x, we say its
radius of convergence is infinite (i.e. R = ∞).
• If it converges only at x = a, the radius of convergence is zero
(i.e. R = 0).
BITS-Pilani Goa 60
Term-by-Tern Differentiation of a
power series
• If Σ cn (x-a)n converges for a – R < x < a + R for some R > 0, it
defines a function f: f ( x)   c ( x  a)n ,
n n 0
a  R  x  a  R.
such a function f has a derivatives of all orders inside the interval of

convergence. We can obtain the derivatives
 by differentiating the
original series term by term: f ( x)  
n 1
ncn ( x  a )
n 1

f ( x)   n(n  1)cn ( x  a ) n  2
n2
and so on. Each of these derived series converges at every interior

point of the interval of convergence of the original series.
BITS-Pilani Goa 61
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
• One of the early application of Calculus was the computation

of approximate numerical values for functions such as sin x,
ln x, ex etc.
• One common method for obtaining such values is to
approximate the function by a polynomial and use that
polynomial to compute the desired numerical values.
• Therefore the problem of primary interest is the following:
Problem: Given a function f and a point a on the x-axis, find
a polynomial of specified degree that best approximates the
function f in the neighborhood of the point a.
BITS-Pilani Goa 62
Taylor and Maclaurin Series …
• Not specified any requirements on f such as continuity,

differentiability and also it is not evident what we mean
by the best approximation.
• We know that
– Within the interval of convergence, the sum of the
power series is a continuous function with derivatives
of all orders.
– Converse ?? i.e. if a function has derivative of all
orders on I, can it be expressed as a power series on I ?
If it is true then what will be its coefficients?
BITS-Pilani Goa 63
• Let f(x) be a sum of a power series

f(x) = Σ an(x-a)n = a0 + a1(x-a) +a2(x-a)2+…+an(x-a)n +…
with a positive radius of convergence. By repeated term
by term differentiation within interval of convergence I,
we get,
f (n)
( x)  n !an  a sum of terms with ( x - a ) as a factor.
f ( n ) (a)
Substitute x = a, we have an 
n!
BITS-Pilani Goa 64
Therefore, if f has a series representation, then the series

must be
f (a) f ( n ) (a)
f ( x)  f (a)  f (a)( x  a)  ( x  a) 2   ( x  a) n 
2! n!
BITS-Pilani Goa 65
• Let f be a function with derivatives of all orders throughout

some interval containing a as an interior point. Then the
Taylor series generated by f at x = a is

f ( k ) (a ) f (a) f ( n ) (a)

k 0 k!
( x  a)  f (a)  f (a)( x  a) 
k
2!
( x  a) 2  
n!
( x  a) n 
• The Maclaurin series generated by f is


f ( k ) (0) k f (0) 2 f ( n) (0) n

k 0 k!
x  f (0)  f (0) x 
2!
x  
n!
x 
the Taylor series generated by f at x = 0.
BITS-Pilani Goa 66
Example 1: Find the Maclaurin series for sin x.
BITS-Pilani Goa 67
Example 2: Find the Maclaurin series for cos x.
BITS-Pilani Goa 68
Applications of Power series
• The Binomial series for Powers and Roots.

• Power series solutions of Differential Equations and
initial value problems.
• Evaluating the Nonelementary Integrals.
• Arctangents i.e. tan-1x
• Evaluating Indeterminate Forms.
BITS-Pilani Goa 69
THE END
BITS-Pilani Goa 70

Mathematics - I (MATH F111) : BITS Pilani

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Mathematics - I (MATH F111) : BITS Pilani

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Mathematics – I

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

• A sequence is an ordered list of objects (or events).

• Like a set, it contains objects (also called elements or

• Unlike a set, order matters and the same element can

• Hence, a sequence may be denoted as a list of numbers

• We will deal exclusively with infinite sequence and so

• Because sequences are functions, we may think about the

• A sequence {an} converges to a limit L if for any

• That is, a sequence {an} converges to a limit L if the

• A sequence {an} is said to converge to the limit L if given any  > 0,

• A sequence that does not converge to a finite limit is said to diverge.

• The sequence {an} idiverges to infinity if for

• If the terms of one sequence appear in another sequence in their

• If a sequence {an} converges to L, then all of its subsequences

Sum Rule lim(an  bn )  A  B

Difference Rule lim(an  bn )  A  B

Product Rule lim(an  bn )  A  B

Constant Multiple Rule lim(k  bn )  k  B

• Remark: Every nonzero multiple of a divergent sequence {an}

then lim bn  L also.

• Let {an} be a sequence of real numbers. If an → L and

• Suppose that f(x) is a function (real valued not necessarily

lim nc  , (c any positive real number)

lim nc  0, (c is any negative real number)

lim a n  0, (a is any real number s.t. | a | 1)

{an } does not converge if | a | 1

• A sequence {an} may be increasing/decreasing or strictly

• A sequence that is either decreasing or increasing is called

• A sequence that is either strictly decreasing or strictly increasing is

• A sequence {an} is bounded from above if there exists a

• If M is an upper bound for {an} but no number less than

• Remark: A nondecreasing sequence that is bounded

• A non-decreasing sequence of real numbers converges

• We want to discuss sums that contain infinitely many

• The number sn is called the nth partial sum of the series

• Let {sn} be the sequence of partial sums of the series

• If the sequence of partial sums diverges, then the series

• Given a series, we would like to know whether it

• A geometric series is one of the form

where a and r are fixed real numbers and a ≠ 0. r is

• If the series converges, then the sum of the series is

• Geometric series with |r| ≥ 1 are not only series to

k 2 Divergent as the partial sum grow beyond every

• Unfortunately, formula like the one for the sum of a

(Alternative form of (a): If the series Σ an converges,

If Σ an = A and Σ bn = B are convergent series, then

3.Constant multiple rule :  ka  k  a  kA (for any number k )

• The convergence is not affected when a finite number

• In this case, the sum of a convergent series is changed

• The partial sums remain same no matter what indexing

• Recall the nondecreasing sequence theorem:

are related in that the integrand in the improper integral

Suppose that an > 0 and bn > 0 for all n ≥ N, (N an integer)

• Let Σ an be a series with positive terms and suppose

converges if all three of the following conditions are

• A series Σ an converges absolutely (or is said to

• A series that converges but does not converges

• If Σ |an| converges, then Σ an converges.

In other words, if a series converges absolutely, then it

Remark: If Σ|an| diverges, no conclusion can be drawn

• We often write a function as infinite polynomials such

• A power series about x = a is a series of the form