Lecture # 3

Photovoltaic Based Energy Systems

Topics to Cover:

 Model of Atom
 Why Si?
 Basics of Semi-conductor
 Moving towards Electric Field
 Electric Field
 Diode Function
 Model of Atom
 Besides the positively charged protons and the
uncharged neutrons inside the nucleus an atom is
composed of the negatively charged electrons that
assume discrete energy levels (such as "shells" or
"orbitales") around the nucleus.
 There is a limited number of electrons that can occupy
a certain energy level; according to the so-called Pauli-
exclusion principle any possible energy level may only
be occupied by a maximum of two electrons.
 If several atoms form a crystal, the different energy
levels of the individual atoms overlap each other and
stretch to form energy bands.
 Between these "allowed“ energy bands there are
energy gaps (i.e. "forbidden" bands).
 Model of Atom
 Valence Band – Our Interest
 The most energy-rich energy band, fully occupied
with electrons, is referred to as valence band; the
electrons it contains determine the chemical bond
type of the material.
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Periodic Table

Fig - Section from the periodic table. More common semiconductor

materials are shown in blue. A semiconductor can be either of a single
element, such as Si or Ge, a compound, such as GaAs, InP or CdTe, or an
alloy, such as SixGe(1-x) or AlxGa(1-x)As, where x is the fraction of the
particular element and ranges from 0 to 1.
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Periodic Table & Optimal Material of PV
 Semiconductor materials come from different
groups in the periodic table, yet share certain
similarities.
 The properties of the semiconductor material are
related to their atomic characteristics, and change
from group to group.
 Researchers and designers take advantage of these
differences to improve design and choose the
optimal material for a PV application.
 Material – Why Si?
 Main reasons:
Silicon is the semiconductor material that
-> Has been theoretically best understood
(Analysis and Evaluation)
-> That is most easily controlled
(Manufacturing Process)
-> Shows the Widest Market Penetration
(More than 90% of Electronics
devices even 95% contains Si)
Hence, major material for PV.
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Si-Material (Four Valance Electrons)
 Semiconductors are made up of
atoms bonded together to form a
uniform structure - CRYSTAL.
 Each silicon atom has four
valence electrons which are
shared, forming a covalent
bonds with the four surrounding
Si atoms.
 Understanding how these atoms are arranged is vital
in understanding the material properties of different
semiconductors, and how best to engineer them.
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Si-Material (Four Valance Electrons)

Fig - Schematic representation of covalent bonds in a silicon crystal

lattice. Each line connecting the atoms represents an electron being
shared between the two. Two electrons being shared are what form the
covalent bond.
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Conduction in Semi-Conductors
 Semiconductors act as insulators at low
temperatures and conductors at higher
temperatures.
 Conduction occurs at higher temperature because
the electrons surrounding the semiconductor atoms
can break away from their covalent bond and move
freely about the lattice
 The conductive property of semiconductors forms
the basis for understanding how we can use these
materials in electrical devices.
 Material - Si
 Conduction of Si
 Electron-Hole Creation & Recombination
 When Electrons move from Valence Band to
Conduction Band, conduction of material occur.
 Remember: Valence and Conduction Band are not
representing different physical levels. They are just
representing the Energy Level of Electron.
Valance Band: Electron does not contain enough
energy that it breaks its bond.
Conduction Band: Electron receives energy from
somewhere (thermal, sunlight) that it can break its
bond and can move within the material.
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Conduction in Semi-Conductors – Animat.
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Band Gap – Forbidden Gap
 The band gap is the minimum amount of energy
required for an electron to break free of its bound
state.
 When the band gap energy is met, the electron is
excited into a free state, and can therefore participate
in conduction.
 The band gap determines how much energy is needed
from the sun for conduction, as well as how much
energy is generated.
 A hole is created where the electron was formerly
bound. This hole also participates in conduction.
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Band Gap  Video: 1. band-gap
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Band Gap  Animation: 1. band-gap
 Basics – Semi-conductor
Materials
 Band Gap – Forbidden Gap
 Remember: Conduction Band is not any new physical
band. It is just representing the energy of Electron i.e.
in conduction band, it has enough energy to break its
bond and move around thus carrying current. While,
valence band means it has not have sufficient energy
to breaks it covalent bond.
 Moving Towards Electric
Field
 Doping
 Doping is a technique used to vary the number of
electrons and holes in semiconductors.
 Doping creates N-type material when semiconductor
materials from group IV are doped with group V
atoms. P-type materials are created when
semiconductor materials from group IV are doped with
group III atoms.
 N-type materials increase the conductivity of a
semiconductor by increasing the number of available
electrons; P-type materials increase conductivity by
increasing the number of holes present.
 Moving Towards Electric
Field
 Doping
 Moving Towards Electric
Field
 Doping
 Moving Towards Electric
Field
 Joining of P-N Materials
 By joining P and N type materials, PN Junction is
formed. At Junction, Two Types of Motion occur.
(Motion Means Moving Charges & Moving Charges
means Current)
 1. Diffusion Motion/Current
 2. Drift Motion/Current

 We will start with the Electron/Hole Motion and

then finally we analyze it in terms of Current.
 Moving Towards Electric
Field
 PN Junction

Holes Free-Electrons
 Moving Towards Electric
Field
 PN Junction
 Diffusion Motion: Responsible for Electric Field
Creation - In start, only diffusion occur, which is:
Since the n-type region has a high electron
concentration and the p-type a high hole concentration,
electrons diffuse from the n-type side to the p-type
side. Similarly, holes flow by diffusion from the p-type
side to the n-type side.
 Moving Towards Electric
Field
 PN Junction
 Diffusion Motion: Responsible for Electric Field
Creation –
 Remember: In a p-n junction, when the electrons and
holes move to the other side of the junction, they leave
behind exposed charges on dopant atom sites,
which are fixed in the crystal lattice and are unable
to move. On the n-type side, positive ion cores are
exposed. On the p-type side, negative ion cores are
exposed.
 Built-in Vb bias voltage is generated.
 Electric Field
 PN Junction
 Diffusion Motion: Responsible for Electric Field
 Electric Field
 PN Junction
 Drift Motion: Due to Electric Field
When Electric Field is created, this will impose opposite
movement to carriers as that of diffusion movement
known as Drift Motion. The repelling force is equivalent of
Vb voltage.
i.e. It will swept away the Electrons towards N-region
and Holes to P-Region.
 Electric Field
 PN Junction
 Equilibrium: Diffusion Motion = Drift Motion
It should be noted that after electric field is created,
now if an electron wants to diffuse into P-region, it will
first has to pass the Electric Field. But, Electric Field
produces the repelling force and forces the electron to
return back to N-region i.e. Drift. Similar case will happen
with the Holes.
i.e. Electron Diffusion = Electron Drift
Hole Diffusion = Hole Drift
Consequently, there will be no mobile carrier in the
region of electric field. Also knows as Depletion Region.
 Electric Field
 PN Junction
 Understanding - Animation: 2. pn-junction
 Diode – PN Junction
 Diode
 Thermal Equilibrium – No Charge Carriers in Space
Charge Regions
 Diode – PN Junction
 Diode
 Forward Bias – Opposite to Electric Field, another
field is created. Resulting Electric Field is reduced.
 Diode – PN Junction
 Diode
 Reverse Bias – Electric Field enhanced.
 Diode – PN Junction
 Diode
 Animation: 3. p-n_Diode
Fermi Levels Understanding from these Videos etc
http://www1017.vu.lt/legacy/pfk/funkc_dariniai/diod/inde
x.html
 Photovoltaic Effect
 Photovoltaic Effect in occurred in Solar
Cell
A solar cell is an electronic device which directly converts
sunlight into electricity. Light shining on the solar cell produces
both a current and a voltage to generate electric power. This process
requires firstly, a material in which the absorption of light raises an
electron to a higher energy state, and secondly, the movement of
this higher energy electron from the solar cell into an external
circuit. The electron then dissipates its energy in the external circuit
and returns to the solar cell. A variety of materials and processes
can potentially satisfy the requirements for photovoltaic energy
conversion, but in practice nearly all photovoltaic energy conversion
uses semiconductor materials in the form of a p-n junction.
 Photovoltaic Effect
 Solar Cell – Contains
 1. Material: A P-N Junction with build-in Electric Field
having V-bias voltage.
 2. Light Generated Carriers i.e. Photons having
sufficient energy to create the electron-hole pair i.e.
moving carriers - current.
 3. The Electric Field swept away (separate) the Two
carriers in their respective (majority) regions i.e.
electron to N-region and hole to P-region.
 4. The load through which the electron flows and
consequently power is dissipated.
 Animation: 4. light-generated-current
 Photovoltaic Effect
 Solar Cell – Two Key Processes
 1. The first process is the absorption of incident
photons to create electron-hole pairs. Electron-hole
pairs will be generated in the solar cell provided that
the incident photon has an energy greater than that of
the band gap
 2. A second process, is the separation of carriers by the
action of the electric field existing at the p-n junction. If
the emitter and base of the solar cell are connected
together (i.e., if the solar cell is short-circuited), the
light-generated carriers flow through the external
circuit.
 Solar Cell – Electrical Model
 Modeling
 A PV Source can be presented as an Ideal Current
Source with Diode in Parallel.

PN Junction

Current Produced due to Photons

 Solar Cell – Electrical Model
 Modeling
 Load Effects

L
O
A
D
 Photovoltaic Effect

 Modeling
 MPP
 Photovoltaic Effect

 Modeling
 MPP