Chapter 13

Lecture
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 Paris Junior College

2401
Anatomy and Physiology I
Chapter 13
Susan Gossett
sgossett@parisjc.edu
Department of Biology
2
 Hole’s Human Anatomy
and Physiology
Twelfth Edition

Shier w Butler w Lewis

Chapter
13
Endocrine System

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4
 13.1: Introduction
• The endocrine system assists the nervous system with
communication and control of the body
• The cells, tissues, and organs are called endocrine glands
• They are ductless
• They use the bloodstream
• They secrete hormones
• There are also similar glands called paracrine and
autocrine glands that are quasi-endocrine
• Other glands that secrete substances are the exocrine glands
• They have ducts
• They deliver their products directly to a specific site
5
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Thyroid
gland

Endocrine
gland

Hormone secretion

Endocrine
cell

Blood flow
(a) Skin

Duct

Exocrine gland
(sweat gland)

Exocrine
cells

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(b)
 13.2: General Characteristics
of the Endocrine System
• The endocrine and nervous systems communicate using
chemical signals
• Neurons release neurotransmitters into a synapse
affecting postsynaptic cells
• Endocrine glands release hormones into the
bloodstream to specific target cell receptors

7
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Nerve impulse

Neuron
Neurotransmitter Post-
transmits
released into synaptic
nerve
synapse cell responds
impulse

(a)

Target cells
(cells with hormone
Glandular receptors) respond
cells secrete to hormone
Bloodstream
hormone into
bloodstream
Hormones have no
effect on other cells

(b) 8
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 13.3: Hormone Action
• Hormones are released into the extracellular spaces
surrounding endocrine cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland Pineal gland

Parathyroid gland
Thyroid gland

Thymus

Adrenal gland
Kidney
Pancreas

Ovary
(in female)

Testis
(in male) 11
 Chemistry of Hormones
• Chemically, hormones are either:
• Steroid or steroid-like hormones such as:
• Sex hormones
• Adrenal cortex hormones
• Non-steroid hormones such as:
• Amines
• Proteins
• Peptides
• Glycoproteins

12
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
CH2OH

C O
H3C OH
HO OH H

H3C HO C C NH2

HO H H

(a) Cortisol (b) Norepinephrine

Ala Val Ser Glu Glu Phe Ile Gly Asp Lys His His Ser Leu Leu

Met

Glu Gly Ser Asp Leu Glu Glu Lys Lys Lys Ala Ala Pro Pro Glu Glu Lys

Val

Val Asp His Lys Lys Ser Arg Gly Arg Arg Asp Ser Glu Pro Arg Asp Ala

Ala

Val Leu Glu Lys Tyr Asp Leu Leu Leu Ile Val Val Asp Ser Lys Gly Glu

Arg

Lys Lys Gly Try His Ileu Met Glu Ser Phe Ala Val Leu Glu

(c) Parathyroid ho rm one (PTH)

O
H H H H H H H
C O
Tyr Cys C C C C C C C C
Ile H OH
S H H H H
C
S H H H H H H
H
Glu
C C C C C C C C C H
Asp Cys Pro Leu Gly C
H H H OH H H H H H
H OH 13
(d) Oxytocin (e) Prostaglandin PGE2
14
15
 Action of Hormones
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• Steroid Hormones Hormone molecule

Cell
membrane
1

Newly forming
protein molecule Ribosome

mRNA
5

Nucleus
4
mRNA

2 Intracellular
receptor molecule
DNA 3 Hormone-receptor
complex
16
 Action of Hormones
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• Non-steroid Hormones Cell membrane Membrane-bound

receptor molecule
Nonsteroid
hormone
1 molecule

2
Hormone-
G protein receptor
complex

3 Adenylate
cyclase
4
ATP
Protein cAMP
kinases
(inactive)
5 Cytoplasm
Protein
kinases
(active)
Substrate
(inactive)

Substrate
(active)

Cellular
Nucleus changes

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13.1 Clinical Application

Using Hormones to Improve

Athletic Performance

18
 Prostaglandins
• Prostaglandins:
• Are paracrine substances
• Are very potent in small amounts
• Are not stored in cells but synthesized just before release
• Rapidly inactivate
• Regulate cellular responses to hormones
• Can activate or inhibit adenylate cyclase
• Controls cAMP production
• Alters a cells response to hormones
• Has a wide variety of effects

19
 13.4: Control of
Hormonal Secretions
• Primarily controlled by negative feedback mechanism
• Hormones can be short-lived or may last for days
• Hormone secretions are precisely regulated

20
Control Sources
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Control center
Endocrine gland
inhibited.

Receptors Effectors
Hormone control Hormone secretion
mechanism senses decreased.
change.

Stimulus Response
Hormone levels rise or Hormone levels
controlled process return toward
increases. normal.
too high

Normal
hormone
levels

too low

Stimulus Response
Hormone levels drop or Hormone levels
controlled process return toward
decreases. normal.
Receptors
Effectors
Hormone control
Hormone secretion
mechanism senses
increased.
change.

Control center 21
Endocrine gland
stimulated.
 Control Sources
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– Hypothalamus – Nervous system – Changing level

of substance
in plasma
– Anterior pituitary gland

Peripheral Endocrine Endocrine

endocrine gland gland
gland

Target cells Target cells Target cells

Action Action Action

(a) (b) (c)

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 13.5: Pituitary Gland
• Lies at the base of the brain in the sella turcica
• Consists of two distinct portions:
• Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
• Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

23
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Third ventricle

Hypothalamus
Anterior cerebral
artery Optic chiasma

Optic nerve Oculomotor

nerve
Pituitary stalk Trochlear nerve
(Infundibulum)
Anterior lobe Posterior lobe
of pituitary gland of pituitary
gland
Sella turcica
Sphenoidal
sinus
Sphenoid bone Basilar artery

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 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
• Hypothalamic releasing hormones stimulate cells of anterior
pituitary to release hormones
• Nerve impulses from hypothalamus stimulate nerve endings
in the posterior pituitary gland to release hormones
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Third ventricle
Optic chiasma Neurosecretory cells
that secrete posterior
Neurosecretory pituitary hormones
cells that secrete
releasing hormones Hypothalamus

Hypophyseal
portal veins
Superior hypophyseal
Secretory cells artery
of anterior
pituitary gland Capillary bed Inferior hypophyseal
artery
Capillary bed
Hypophyseal veins
Sella turcica of
sphenoid bone 25
Anterior lobe of pituitary gland Posterior lobe of pituitary gland
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

– Hypothalamus –

Releasing
hormone
(Hormone 1) Secretory
cells
+

– Anterior pituitary

Anterior pituitary
hormone
(Hormone 2)
+

Peripheral endocrine gland © Michael Ross/Photo Researchers, Inc.

(Hormone 3)
Stimulation

+ Inhibition
Target cells

26
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Hormones from Hypothalamus

GHRH SS PRF PIH TRH CRH GnRH

Growth Somatostatin Prolactin- Prolactin- Thyrotropin- Corticotropin- Gonadotropin-
hormone- releasing release releasing releasing releasing
releasing factor inhibiting hormone hormone hormone
hormone hormone

Hormones from Anterior Pituitary

GH PRL TSH ACTH LH FSH

Growth Prolactin Thyroid- Adrenocorticotropic Luteinizing Follicle-
hormone stimulating hormone hormone stimulating
hormone hormone

Bone Muscle Adipose Mammary gland Thyroid Adrenal Ovary Testis

tissue cortex

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13.2 Clinical Application

Growth Hormone Ups and Downs

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 Posterior Pituitary Hormones
• Structurally consists of nerve fibers and neuroglia v.
glandular epithelial cells of the anterior pituitary gland
• The nerve fibers originate in the hypothalamus
• Two hormones are produced:
• Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
• Oxytocin

29
30
 13.6: Thyroid Gland
• The thyroid gland has two lateral lobes and lies just below
the larynx
• It produces three hormones:
• T3 (thyroxine)
• T4 (triiodothyronine)
• Calcitonin

31
 Structure of the Gland
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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Larynx
Colloid

Thyroid
Follicular
gland
cell

Follicular cells

Colloid Isthmus
Extrafollicular
cell
(a)

(b)
Extrafollicular
cells

© Fred Hossler/Visuals Unlimited

32
Thyroid Hormones
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OH OH
I I I

O O
I I I I

CH2 CH2

NH2CHCOOH NH2CHCOOH

Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3)

33
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© Mediscan/Visuals Unlimited © Mediscan/Visuals Unlimited © Mediscan/Visuals Unlimited

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 13.7: Parathyroid Glands
• The parathyroid glands are on the posterior surface of the
thyroid gland
• There are typically four parathyroid glands
• It secretes one hormone:
• PTH (parathyroid hormone or parathormone)

35
 Structure of the Glands
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Secretory cells Pharynx

Thyroid
gland
Capillaries Parathyroid
glands

© R. Calentine/Visuals Unlimited
Esophagus

Trachea

Posterior view 36
Parathyroid Hormone
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Foods

Cholesterol

Intestinal enzymes

Provitamin D

Ultraviolet light in skin

Vitamin D
(Cholecalciferol)

Also obtained directly

from foods

Liver

Hydroxycholecalciferol

Kidney Stimulated by PTH

Dihydroxycholecalciferol
(active form of vitamin D)

Controls absorption of
calcium in intestine
Ca+2
37
Ca+2
Ca+2
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Parathyroid glands (on

posterior of thyroid gland)
Release into
bloodstream
Decreased blood calcium Increased blood
Stimulation stimulates parathyroid – calcium inhibits
hormone secretion PTH secretion
Inhibition
PTH

Bloodstream

PTH PTH
Ca+2 Ca+2 Ca+2
+ +

Bone Kidneys Intestine

releases Ca+2 conserve Ca+2 and absorbs Ca+2
activate Vitamin D

Active
Vitamin D

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39
 13.8: Adrenal Glands
• The adrenal glands are closely associated with the kidneys
• The gland sits like a cap on each kidney
• Hormones are secreted from two different areas of the
gland, the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla
• Numerous hormones are secreted by the adrenal glands

40
 Structure of the Glands

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Capsule Surface of
adrenal gland
Zona Connective
Adrenal gland tissue capsule
glomerulosa
Zona
Kidney
lomerulosa
Zona
fasciculata
Cortex

Zona
Adrenal fasciculata
Adrenal cortex cortex

Adrenal
medulla
Zona
reticularis
Zona
reticularis (a)
Adrenal
Medulla

medulla
(b)
Chromaffin
cells
© Ed Reschke

41
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla

42
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex

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13.3 Clinical Application

Disorders of the Adrenal Cortex

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13.1 From Science to Technology

Treating Diabetes

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 13.9: Pancreas
• The pancreas has two major types of secretory tissue
• This is why it is a dual functioning organ as both an
exocrine gland and endocrine gland
• Three hormones are secreted from the islet cells:
• Alpha cells secrete glucagon
• Beta cells insulin
• Delta cells secrete somatostatin

46
 Structure of the Gland
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Pancreatic islet (Islet of Langerhans) Gallbladder Common bile duct

Pancreatic duct

Duct Pancreas

Small
intestine

Digestive enzyme-
secreting cells
Pancreatic islet
(Islet of Langerhans)
Capillary
Hormone-secreting
islet cells
From Kent M. Van De Graaff and Stuart Ira Fox, Concepts of Human Anatomy and
Physiology, 2nd ed. ©1989 Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. All Rights
Reserved. Reprinted with permission
47
Hormones of the Pancreatic Islets

48
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Control center
Beta cells secrete
insulin

Effectors
Receptors Insulin
Beta cells detect a rise • Promotes movement of glucose
in blood glucose into certain cells
• Stimulates formation of glycogen
from glucose
Stimulus Response
Rise in blood glucose Blood glucose drops toward
normal (and inhibits insulin
secretion)

too high

Normal
blood glucose
concentration

too low

Response
Stimulus
Blood glucose rises toward
Drop in blood glucose
normal (and inhibits glucagon
secretion)

Receptors Effectors
Alpha cells detect a drop Glucagon
in blood glucose • Stimulates cells to break down glycogen
into glucose
• Stimulates cells to convert
noncarbohydrates into glucose
Control center
Alpha cells secrete 49
glucagon
13.4 Clinical Application

Diabetes Mellitus

50
13.10: Other Endocrine Glands
Pineal Gland
• Secretes melatonin
• Regulates circadian rhythms
Thymus Gland
• Secretes thymosins
• Promotes development of certain lymphocytes
• Important in role of immunity
Reproductive Organs
• Ovaries produce estrogens and progesterone
• Testes produce testosterone
• Placenta produces estrogens, progesterone, and
gonadotropin
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Other organs: digestive glands, heart, and kidney
 13.11: Stress and Its Effects
• Survival depends on maintaining homeostasis
• Factors that change the internal environment are
potentially life-threatening
• Sensing such dangers directs nerve impulses to the
hypothalamus
• This can trigger a loss of homeostasis

52
 Types of Stress
• Two types of stress:
• Physical stress
• Psychological stress

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 Responses to Stress
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Stress results from changes

Hormonal signals
in the external environment
Neural signals
Signals from
sensory receptors

Sympathetic impulses

Hypothalamus
CRH released

Adrenal medulla Anterior pituitary

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine ACTH released

norepinephrine released
released
Adrenal cortex
Short-term “fight or flight” or alarm stage.
Cortisol released
• Blood glucose increases.
• Blood glycerol and fatty acids increase. Long-term adjustment or resistance stage
• Heart rate increases.
• Blood pressure rises. • Increase in blood concentration of amino acids.
• Breathing rate increases. • Increased release of fatty acids.
• Air passages dilate. • Increased glucose formed from
• Pupils dilate. noncarbohydrates—amino acids (from 54
• Blood flow redistributes. proteins) and glycerol (from fats).
55
 13.12: Lifespan Changes
• Endocrine glands decrease in size
• Muscular strength decreases as GH levels decrease
• ADH levels increase due to slower break down in liver
and kidneys
• Calcitonin levels decrease; increase risk of osteoporosis
• PTH level changes contribute to risk of osteoporosis
• Insulin resistance may develop
• Changes in melatonin secretion affect the body clock
• Thymosin production declines increasing risk of infections

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 Important Points in Chapter 13:
Outcomes to be Assessed
13.1: Introduction
 Define hormone.
 Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.
13.2: General Characteristics of the Endocrine System
 Explain what makes a cell a target cell for a hormone.
 List some important functions of hormones.
13.3: Hormone Action
 Describe how hormones can be classified according to their chemical
composition.
 Explain how steroid and non-steroid hormones affect their target cells.
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 Important Points in Chapter 13:
Outcomes to be Assessed

13.4: Control of Hormone Secretion

 Discuss how negative feedback mechanisms regulate hormone
secretion.
 Explain how the nervous system controls hormone secretion.
13.5-13.10: Pituitary Gland – Other Endocrine Glands
 Name and describe the locations of the major endocrine glands and
list the hormones that they secrete.
 Describe the actions of the various hormones and their contributions
to homeostasis.
 Explain how the secretion of each hormone is regulated.
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 Important Points in Chapter 13:
Outcomes to be Assessed

13.11: Stress and Its Effects

 Distinguish between physical and psychological stress.
 Describe the general stress response.
13.12: Lifespan Changes
 Describe some of the changes associated with aging of the endocrine
system.

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 Quiz 13
Complete Quiz 13 now!

Read Chapter 14.

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