BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

LONG SPAN STRUCTURES

B.R. HARNE COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE

PRATEEK SUNIL PRAJAPATI
5 / AR / 15 / 30
 LONG SPAN BEAMS :
The aim of this article is to introduce the designer to the broad range of long span, steel-based
solutions that is available. Spans in excess of 20 m can be. Generally long spans result in
flexible, column-free internal spaces, reduce substructure costs, and reduce steel
erection times. This broad range of benefits means that they are commonly found a wide range
of building types. The particular advantages and disadvantages of each individual solution are
summarized below, so that a designer can assess the benefits offered by a particular solution in
relation to the drivers for a given project, to identify the most appropriate and cost.
effective solution. The use of long span beams results in a range of benefits, including flexible,
column-free internal spaces, reduced foundation costs, and reduced steel erection times. Many
long span solutions are also well adapted to facilitate the integration of services without
increasing the overall floor depth. The solutions described below are presented in order of
increasing spanning ability, with some overlap between options. The aim is to present a wide
range of solutions. By far the most common types of beam used today are plate girders, and
beams with web openings.

PARALLEL BEAM :
The parallel beam approach is effective for spans up to around 14 m. Floor grids comprise two
layers of fully continuous beams running in orthogonal directions. Services running in either
direction can be integrated within these two layers, so that services passing in any direction can
be accommodated within the structural floor depth. A further benefit is that, being fully
continuous, the depth of the beams themselves is reduced without incurring the expense and
complexity of rigid, full strength connections .

COMPOSITE BEAMS WITH WEB OPENING :

Web openings are typically formed in beams to allow services to pass through the beam. This
enables the structural and service zones to occupy the same space, thereby reducing the
effective overall depth of floor construction for a given spanning capability. Openings may
also be formed for aesthetic reasons, for instance with cambered beams used to support a
roof. Composite beams with web openings have been shown to be a cost effective solution for
spans in the range 10 to 16 m.

CELLULAR COMPOSITE BEAMS :

Cellular beams are a form of beam with multiple regular web openings , formed by splitting
two rolled sections longitudinally, to form two Tee sections. The two Tees, which may not
come from the same donor section (as discussed below) are then welded together to form an I-
section with web openings which have a characteristic shape (normally, but not necessarily,
circular). The process used to form cellular beams enables the bottom half of the final beam to
be formed from a heavier donor section than the top half - in other words the bottom flange can
be significantly bigger than the top flange. This makes sense when, as is often the case, the
beams are to act compositely and therefore a concrete flange effectively replaces the upper
steel flange in the final state (the upper steel flange only needs to be big enough to meet
construction needs and serve as a platform for the shear studs).
TAPERED GIRDER BEAMS :
Tapered girders can be a cost effective solution in the span range 10 m to 20 m. They are
another solution that allows services to be accommodated within the structural floor zone.
The depth of the girder increases towards mid-span, where applied moments are greatest,
and thereby facilitating hanging services under the shallower regions near the beam
supports. It is also possible to form web openings in tapered girders in regions of low
shear, towards mid-span. These provide more options for service integration .

STUB GIRDER BEAMS :

Stub girders are a Vierendeel form of truss, a rather exotic hybrid that can be thought of as
lying somewhere between a solid web I-section and a truss. The bottom chord is typically
formed from a shallow open section (UC), on which sit short lengths (stubs) of deeper I-
sections (UB). The top chord, at least in the final state, is formed by the composite slab,
and therein lies one of the disadvantages of this option - until composite action with the
cured concrete is achieved the beams may need temporary support/restraint. An inverted
Tee section may be used to fulfil the functions of a top chord during erection. Composite
interaction is achieved by welding shear studs to the top of the UB stubs. The number of
elements/surfaces associated with a stub girder may increase the cost of fire protection
compared with simpler solutions.

HAUNCHED COMPOSITE BEAMS :

Haunches may be added at the ends of a composite beam to provide moment continuity.
The stiffness and strength of the connections mean that the rest of the span can be
shallower, and services passed under it. In buildings where the services are likely to need
frequent replacement ,hanging the services under the beams rather than passing them
through holes in the webs, or through a truss, can be advantageous. Spans in excess of
20 m can readily be achieved.
 PARALLEL BEAM COMPOSITE BEAM WITH
WEB OPENING

CELLULAR COMPOSITE BEAM STUB GIRDER BEAM

TAPERED GIRDER BEAM HAUNCHED COMPOSITE BEAM

LONG SPAN TRUSSES :
A truss is essentially a triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements. The
most common use of trusses is in buildings, where support to roofs, the floors and internal
loading such as services and suspended ceilings, are readily provided. A truss is essentially a
triangulated system of straight interconnected structural elements; it is sometimes also
referred to as an open web girder. The individual elements are connected at nodes; the
connections are often assumed to be nominally pinned. The external forces applied to the
system and the reactions at the supports are generally applied at the nodes. Trusses are used
in a broad range of buildings, mainly where there is a requirement for very long spans, such
as in airport terminals, aircraft hangers, sports stadia roofs, auditoriums and other leisure
buildings. Trusses are also used to carry heavy loads and are sometimes used as transfer
structures. This article focuses on typical single storey industrial buildings.

TYPES OF TRUSSES :

PRATT TRUSS :
Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in span. In
a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity loads. This type of
truss is used where gravity loads are predominant An alternative Pratt truss is shown where
the diagonal members are in tension for uplift loads. This type of truss is used where uplift
loads are predominant, which may be the case in open buildings such as aircraft hangers.

WARREN TRUSS :
In this type of truss, diagonal members are alternatively in tension and in compression. The Warren
truss has equal length compression and tension web members, and fewer members than a Pratt
truss. A modified Warren truss may be adopted where additional members are introduced to provide
a node at purlin locations. Warren trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from
20 to 100 m in span.

NORHT LIGHT TRUSS :

North light trusses are traditionally used for short spans in industrial workshop-type buildings.
They allow maximum benefit to be gained from natural lighting by the use of glazing on the
steeper pitch which generally faces north or north-east to reduce solar gain. On the steeper
sloping portion of the truss, it is typical to have a truss running perpendicular to the plane of
the North Light truss, to provide large column-free spaces
SAW TOOTH TRUSS :
A variation of the North light truss is the saw-tooth truss which is used in multi-bay buildings.
Similar to the North light truss, it is typical to include a truss of the vertical face running
perpendicular to the plane of the saw-tooth truss.

FINK TRUSS :
The Fink truss offers economy in terms of steel weight for short-span high-pitched roofs as the
members are subdivided into shorter elements. There are many ways of arranging and
subdividing the chords and internal members. This type of truss is commonly used to construct
roofs in houses.

VIERENDEEL TRUSS :
Vierendeel trusses are rigidly-jointed trusses having only vertical members between the top and
bottom chords. The chords are normally parallel or near parallel. Vierendeel trusses are usually
more expensive than conventional trusses and their use limited to instances where diagonal web
members are either obtrusive or undesirable. Vierendeel trusses are moment resisting. Vertical
members near the supports are subject to the highest moments and therefore require larger
sections to be used than those at mid-span.

PRATT TRUSS WARREN TRUSS

NORTH LIGHT TRUSS SAWTOOTH TRUSS

FINK TRUSS

VIERENDEEL TRUSS
CABLE STRUCTURE :
Concrete thin shell structure is a three-dimensional spatial structure that constructed from one or
more curved slabs or folded plates. The thicknesses of curved slab and folded plates are small
compared to their other dimensions.
The outstanding features of concrete thin shells are their three-dimensional load-carrying behavior
which is governed by number of factors. For example, nature of the applied load, the manner in
which thin shells are supported, and the geometry of thin shell forms.

Types and Forms of Shell Structure

•Barrel Vaults
•Short Shells
•Domes (surfaces of revolution)
•Folded Plate Domes
•Translational Shells
•Warped Surfaces
•Combinations

Cylindrical barrel Vaults

Basically, barrel vaults are deep concrete beams with considerably thin web member that can be
designed using conventional reinforced concrete design.
Moreover, this type of concrete thin shell composes of cylinder, frame or ties at the ends including
columns, and side elements which include a cylindrical element; a folded plate element; columns;
or combination thereof.
Barrel vaults assumed to be very efficient due to the use the arch form to reduce stresses and
thicknesses in the transverse direction. Added to that, it spans up to 45.72m that is why barrel
vaults are the most useful shell structure.
Finally, a barrel shell carries load longitudinally as a beam and transversely as an arch. The arch,
however, is supported by internal shears, and so may be calculated.
Short shell
It is a cylindrical shell that has a considerably large radius in comparison with its length.
Short shell consist of shell element spans between arches, arch structure, and edge beams
provided at the lowest point of the shell. In small structure, it is permissible to omit edge
beams in small structure. Moreover, the short shell carries load in two ways; as an arch
carrying load to the lower elements. and as a curved beam to the arches. Lastly, the
thickness of the shell can be quite thin due to these properties.

Domes (surfaces of revolution)

They are structures that cover a more or less square or circular area. Domes are hemisphere in
shape and used as a roof structure. Support element of domes include columns, circular or
regular polygon shaped wall. Moreover, they are membrane structures; the internal stresses are
tension and compression and are statically determinate if the proper edge conditions are
fulfilled.
Furthermore, in a dome of uniform thickness, under its own weight, the ring stresses are
compression until the angle to the vertical is about 57 degrees.
Lastly, if the dome is less than a full hemisphere, a ring is required at the base of the dome to
contain the forces.
 Folded plate domes
It is a type of thin concrete shell structure that consists of plane slabs and plates. various
configurations of folded plate domes are available and being constructed. Domes may be
constructed with small angles between the plates or with large angles between plates and the
structural action may be considerably different for each type.
folded plate dome surfaces is easier to construct since they are flat. Nonetheless, for slab
spans over 16 ft, the shell wall is thicker than a curved surface because bending must be
considered.
the sound waves in areas covered with folded plate domes are not converge. Therefore, it is
more desirable to the curved dome for use in an auditorium.
Finally, the structural design of folded plate domes follows that of folded plate barrels.

Translation Shells
A translation shell is a dome set on four arches. The shape is different from a spherical dome and
is generated by a vertical circle moving on another circle. All vertical slices have the same radius.
It is easier to form than a spherical dome.
The stresses in a translation shell are much like a dome at the top, but at the level of the arches,
tension forces are offset by compression in the arch. However, there are high tension forces in the
corner.
 Wrapped surfaces
Warped surfaces have a great advantage for shell structures because they may be formed from
straight form boards even though they are surfaces of double curvature.
There are two types which are most useful namely Conoid and hyperbolic paraboloid shell.

Combinations
The above shell structure are basic types. So, it is possible to construct different and safer shell
structure by combining portion of the basic shell structure.
Intersection shells, barrel shell and folded plate, barrel shell and short shell, barrel shells and
domes of revolution, and barrel shells and conoids are all concrete shell combinations. So,
numerous combinations can be formed to reach the desired safety and capacity.
TENSILE STRUCTURE :
A tensile structure is a structure elements carrying only tension and
no compression or bending. A tensile membrane structure is most often used as a roof, as they
can economically and attractively span large distances. These type of structure is commonly
found in sports facilities, warehousing and storage buildings, and exhibition venues.

1. Conical Tension Structure

Highly effective for covering large areas, a conical tension structure is easily identified by its
tent-like shape. Conical designs can feature either single or multiple masts. For both design
options, membranes are tensioned between a ring at the pinnacle and the lower perimeter
support columns. Cones are especially effective in areas that need to comply with high rain or
snow load regulations.

2. Hypar or Anticlastic Structure

As one of the most common of all tensioned membrane structures due to its aesthetically
pleasing look, hypar (hyperbolic paraboloid) shapes are notable for their excellence with
shape retention and water runoff. These structures rely on two opposing curvatures, also
known as anticlastic, for their stability. This type of structure is ideal for shade over seating
areas or high traffic walkways.
3. Parallel Arch or Barrel Vault Structure
These symmetrical curved parallel arch designs form an incredibly functional tensioned
membrane canopy that can span long distances such as a sports arena or smaller areas such as
an entryway. Depending on the spans, a barrel vault system can be a very cost-effective way
to incorporate tensile membrane on a project due to the repetitive nature of the design and
efficiencies of materials.

4. Cable Net & Membrane Structure

For long-span tensile membrane roofing applications typically found in stadiums or large
spaces, 3D cable net or cable grid structures are an efficient solution for lightweight tensile
architecture.

Advantages of Tensile Structures

1.Shelter of environment (sun, rain, wind)
2.Translucency in general, possibilities to design light effects
3.Light weight & Durability
4.Endless form possibilities, catching character
5.Short building time, off site manufacturing of structure, less site interruption time
6.Large spans
7.Recyclability and Eco friendliness
8.Adaptability to exciting building technologies (steel, glass, cement, stone)
9.Simplicity of maintenance & Easy repair or replacement
PORTAL FRAMES :
Portal frames are a type of structural frame, that, in their simplest form, are characterised by
a beam (or rafter) supported at either end by columns, however, the joints between the beam
and columns are 'rigid' so that the bending moment in the beam is transferred to
the columns. This means that the beam can be reduced in sectional size and can span large
distances. Typically, the joint between the beam and the columns is made 'rigid' by the
addition of a haunch, bracket, or by a deepening of the section at the joints
Portal frames are generally fabricated from steel, reinforced precast concrete, or
laminated timber sometimes referred to as 'glulam'.
Where a pitch is required, portal frames can have a mono pitch, or can have a double pitch
with a rigid joint at the apex. Other forms include; tied portal frames, propped portal
frames and multi-span portal frames which can cover very large areas. Where the portal
frame includes a pitch, the wider the span of the frame, the higher the apex.
To reduce the overall height, a curved rafter might be adopted, or a mansard form. This can
also help with water runoff, which can be significant on large roofs. A curved,
or mansard form increases the pitch of the roof towards the eaves, where the runoff is likely
to be at its greatest.
Generally, a building structure will be formed by a series of parallel portal frames running
down the length of the buildings, typically 6 - 8 m apart. A
secondary framework of purlins fixed to the rafters and rails fixed to the columns provides
support for cladding. Portal frame structures are often clad with prefabricated composite
metal panels, incorporating insulation. Masonry cladding may be provided at low level to
give greater resilience and security.
They are a deceptively simple structural form, but care must be taken, particularly in
the design of joints to ensure that appropriate restraint is provided to
prevent buckling. Bracing is also required to give the row of parallel frames lateral stability,
and this may be provided in an end bay or intermediary bay between the frames.
Portal frames can be a simple and rapid form of structure to erect, creating a wide, clear-
span, weather-proof enclosure at low cost, with little material. They tend to be lightweight
and can be fabricated off-site, then bolted to a substructure. The portal frames themselves
may be left exposed to the internal space, and if carefully designed can be very beautiful.
CABLE STRUCTURE :
Cable structure, Form of long-span structure that is subject to tension and uses suspension
cables for support. Highly efficient, cable structures include the suspension bridge, the
cable-stayed roof, and the bicycle-wheel roof. The graceful curve of the huge main cables
of a suspension bridge is almost a catenary, the shape assumed by any string or cable
suspended freely between two points. The cable-stayed roof is supported from above by
steel cables radiating downward from masts that rise above roof level. The bicycle-wheel
roof involves two layers of tension cables radiating from an inner tension ring and an outer
compression ring, which in turn is supported by columns.

CABLE STAYED :
A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers or pylons , from which cables support the
bridge deck. A distinctive feature are the cables or stays, which run directly from the tower
to the deck, normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of parallel lines. This is in
contrast to the modern suspension bridge, where the cables supporting the deck are
suspended vertically from the main cable, anchored at both ends of the bridge and running
between the towers. The cable-stayed bridge is optimal for spans longer than cantilever
bridges and shorter than suspension bridges. This is the range within which cantilever
bridges would rapidly grow heavier, and suspension bridge cabling would be more costly.

SUSPENSION BRIDGE :
This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers, plus vertical suspender
cables that carry the weight of the deck below, upon which traffic crosses. This
arrangement allows the deck to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance. Like
other suspension bridge types, this type often is constructed without falsework. The
suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any load applied to the
bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The main cables continue beyond
the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with anchors in the
ground. The roadway is supported by vertical suspender cables or rods, called hangers. In
some circumstances, the towers may sit on a bluff or canyon edge where the road may
proceed directly to the main span, otherwise the bridge will usually have two smaller
spans, running between either pair of pillars and the highway, which may be supported by
suspender cables or may use a truss bridge to make this connection. In the latter case there
will be very little arc in the outboard main cables.
 CABLE STAYED

SUSPENSION BRIDGE
FLODED PLATE STRUCTURE :

Folded plate structures are assemblies of flat plates, or slabs, inclined in different
directions and joined along their longitudinal edges. In this way the structural system is
capable of carrying loads without the need for additional supporting beams along mutual
edges. This technique originated in Germany in the 1920s and became popular in Russia
and the United States during the 1930s to construct roofs for industrial warehouses
and public buildings.
Modern folded plate structures are typically made of cast in situ or precast reinforced
concrete, or steel plate.
They can provide a multitude of shapes and overall forms:

•Prismatic: Rectangular plates.

•Pyramidal: Non-rectangular plates.
•Prismoidal: Triangular or trapezoidal plates.

There are several benefits of folded plate construction. They are simpler to manufacture
than other shells such as cylindrical shells, with relatively simple formwork required, and
usually use less material. However, folded plates require more materials than
curved shells since there is normally more bending involved.
Folded plate structures have an intrinsic rigidity and high load-carrying capacity which
makes them economical over long spans that need to be free of internal columns and
other obstructions.
SPACE FRAMES :
In architecture and structural engineering, a space frame or space structure (3D truss) is a rigid,
lightweight, truss-like structure constructed from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern.
Space frames can be used to span large areas with few interior supports. Like the truss, a space
frame is strong because of the inherent rigidity of the triangle; flexing loadsare transmitted
as tension and compression loads along the length of each strut. Steel space frames provide
great freedom of expression and composition as well as the possibility to evenly distribute
loads along each rod and external constraints. With these features, steel space frames can be
used to achieve also complex geometries with a structural weight lower than any other solution.
The inner highly hyper-static system provides an increased resistance to damages caused by
fire, explosions, shocks and earthquakes. Space frames are modular and made of highly
industrialized elements designed with a remarkable dimensional accuracy and precise surface
finish. The simplest form of space frame is a horizontal slab of interlocking square
pyramids and tetrahedra built from aluminum or tubular steel struts. In many ways this looks
like the horizontal jib of a tower crane repeated many times to make it wider. A stronger form is
composed of interlocking tetrahedra in which all the struts have unit length. More technically
this is referred to as an isotropic vector matrix or in a single unit width an octet truss. More
complex variations change the lengths of the struts to curve the overall structure or may
incorporate other geometrical shapes.
STEEL STRUCTURES :

The erection of structural steelwork consists of the assembly of steel components into a frame
on site. The processes involve lifting and placing components into position, then connecting
them together. Generally this is achieved through bolting but sometimes site welding is used.
The assembled frame needs to be aligned before bolting up is completed, and the structure
handed over to the principal contractor. Often the ability to complete these processes safely,
quickly and economically is influenced significantly by early decisions made
during design long before erection commences. It is important that designers clearly
understand the impact that their decisions can have; "buildability" is a valid design objective.

In a structural steel building there’s a clear distinction between structural elements and filling.
In this case the primary structural elements are linear elements such as columns and beams, in
many cases placed on a regular grid. Vertical charges are transferred as concentrated loads.
The individual elements are often hot rolled steel profiles with an important section. They are
your typical IPE column and beam. Other I-shaped profiles or hollow sections such as box or
tube profiles can also be used in this construction method. Connecting two or more elements
is done by either bolting or welding.

This immense strength is of great advantage to buildings. The other important feature of steel
framing is its flexibility. It can bend without cracking, which is another great advantage, as a
steel building can flex when it is pushed to one side by say, wind, or an earthquake. The third
characteristic of steel is its plasticity or ductility. This means that when subjected to great
force, it will not suddenly crack like glass, but slowly bend out of shape. This property allows
steel buildings to bend out of shape, or deform, thus giving warning to inhabitants to escape.
Failure in steel frames is not sudden - a steel structure rarely collapses. Steel in most cases
performs far better in earthquake than most other materials because of these properties.
TYPES OF FABRICATION :

Conventional Steel Fabrication is when teams of steel fabricators cut members of steel to the
correct lengths, and then weld them together to make the final structure. This can be done
entirely at the construction site, which is labour - intensive, or partially in a workshop, to
provide better working conditions and reduce time.

Bolted Steel Construction occurs when steel fabricators produce finished and painted steel
components, which are then shipped to the site and simply bolted in place. This is the
preferred method of steel construction, as the bulk of the fabrication can be done in
workshops, with the right machinery, lighting, and work conditions. The size of the
components are governed by the size of the truck or trailer they are shipped in, usually with
a max length of 6m for normal trucks or 12m for long trailers. Since the only work to be
done at site is lifting the steel members into place and bolting, the work at site is
tremendously fast. Pre-engineered buildings are an example of bolted steel construction that
is designed, fabricated, shipped and erected by one company to the owner.

Light Gauge Steel Construction is a type of construction that is common for residential and
small buildings in North America and parts of Europe. This is similar to wood framed
construction, except that light gauge steel members are used in place of wood two-by-fours.
Light gauge steel is steel that is in the form of thin sheets of steel that have been bent into
shape to form C-sections or Z-sections.