Chapter 1

Program Design
 Objectives

• In this chapter you will be able to:

• Describe the steps in the program development

process

• To introduce current program design methodology

• Introduce procedural and object-oriented

programming

• Introduce algorithms

• Describe program data

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 Program Design

• Most good programs require good planning

before they are written. This is called Program
Design.

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 Steps in Program Development

The steps in program design are similar to the steps in problem

solving. They are:
1. Define the problem
2. Outline the solution
3. Develop the outline into an algorithm
4. Test the algorithm for correctness
5. Code the algorithm into a specific programming language
6. Run the program on the computer
7. Document and maintain the program

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 Steps in Program Development
1 Define the Problem
To help with initial analysis, the problem should be
divided into three separate components:

– the inputs - What information is given to you

to use to solve the problem?
– the outputs - What will the solution of the
problem, look like
– the processing steps - What calculations
(processes), will be used to change the input
information into the desired output?
• Tool: Defining diagram

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 2 Outline the Solution
• Break the problem into the steps of what must be
done to solve the problem:
– The major processing steps involved
– The major subtasks (if any)
– The user interface (if any)
– The major control structures (e.g. repetition loops)
– The major variables and record structures
– The mainline logic
Tools: Hierarchy or Structure charts

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3 Develop the Outline into an Algorithm

• The solution outline developed in Step 2 is

expanded into an algorithm:

• It should list all the steps that need to be done, in

the correct order they need to be done in.

Tools: Pseudocode, Flowcharts, Nassi-

Schneiderman diagrams

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4 Test the Algorithm for Correctness

• In this step, you pretend to be a computer and execute the steps

in the algorithm. This is called "Desk Checking."

• This step is one of the most important in the development

of a program, and yet it is the step most often forgotten

• The main purpose of desk checking the algorithm is to

identify major logic errors early, so that they may be easily
corrected

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5 Code the Algorithm into a Specific Programming
Language

• Once the algorithm, or complete outline works

correctly, you need to translate the algorithm into
a computer language that your computer
understands.

– This is only 5 to 10% of the total programming process!

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6 Run the Program on the Computer

• This step uses a program compiler and programmer-

designed test data to machine test the code for syntax

errors (at compile time) and logic errors (at run time)

• You enter the program into the computer's memory, enter the

input data, and have the computer execute the program. If you get

the correct answer to the problem, the program works! Otherwise,

look for errors in the program and try again.

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7 Document and Maintain the Program

• Warning! The Documentation of the program

started by writing down "What is the Problem!" It
continues through each step of the design
process.

• Documentation involves:

– external documentation

– internal documentation that may have been coded in the

program
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 Program Design Methodology

• Recently, a number of different

approaches to program design have
emerged, the most common being:

– Procedure-driven

– Event-driven

– Data-driven

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 Procedure-Driven Program Design

• The procedure-driven approach to

program design is based on the idea that
the most important feature of a program is
‘what’ it does – that is, its processes or
functions

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 Procedure-Driven Program Design

Example

• A program to execute a sales order may

be divided into:
– order entry module
– data verification module
– Inventory update module

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 Procedure-Driven Program Design

• In procedure-driven programming, the sequence of

operations for an application is determined by a
central controlling program (e.g., a main procedure).
– The program determines in advance what will be done
and in which order. The program starts at the beginning,
occasionally calls subroutines

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 Event-Driven Program Design

• The event-driven approach to program

design is based on the idea that an event
or interaction with the outside world can
cause a program to change from one
known state to another
• In event-driven programming the code responds
to a system-generated event, such as a button-
push or a clock cycle.

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 Data-Driven Program Design

• The data-driven approach to program design is

based on the idea that the data in a program is
more stable than the processes involved
• It begins with an analysis of the data and the
relationships between the data, in order to
determine the fundamental data structures
• The choice between procedure-driven, event-
driven, or data-driven program design
methodologies is usually determined by the
selection of a programming language

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 Procedural versus Object-Oriented
Programming
• Procedural programming is based on a structured, top-
down approach to writing effective programs

• In the top-down development of a program design:

1. a general solution to the problem is outlined first

2. the general solution is then broken down gradually into more

detailed steps until finally the most detailed levels have been
completed

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 Modular Design

• Procedural programming also

incorporates the concept of modular
design, which involves grouping tasks
together because they all perform the
same function

• Modular design is connected directly to

top-down development

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 Object-Oriented Programming

• Object-oriented programming is also

based on decomposing the problem;

however, the primary focus is on the

things that make up the program

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 Quick Quiz

1. Name and define the second step in program

development.
• ANSWER: Outline the solution- is the initial
outline usually in a rough draft of the solution
which may include: major processing steps
involved, major subtasks, user interface, major
control structures, major variables and record
structures, and the mainline logic.

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 Quick Quiz

2. The __________-driven approach to

programming is based on the idea that an
interaction with the outside world can cause a
program to change from one known state to
another.
• ANSWER: event

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 Quick Quiz

3. The choice between procedure-driven, event-

driven, or data-driven program design
methodologies is usually determined by the
selection of a(n) __________.
• ANSWER: programming language

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 Quick Quiz

4. __________ programming is based on a

structured, top-down approach to writing
effective programs.
• ANSWER: Procedural

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 Quick Quiz

5. ___________ programming is also based on

decomposing the problem; however, the primary
focus is on the things that make up the program.
• ANSWER: Object-oriented

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 An Introduction to Algorithms and
Pseudocode

• A program must be systematically and

properly designed before coding begins

• This design process results in the

construction of an algorithm

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 What Is an Algorithm?

• An algorithm is like a recipe: it lists the steps

involved in accomplishing a task

• It can be defined in programming terms as a

set of detailed, unambiguous and ordered
instructions developed to describe the
process necessary to produce the desired
output from a given input

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 What Is Pseudocode?

• Pseudocode, flowcharts, and Nassi-Schneiderman

diagrams are all popular ways of representing algorithms
• Flowcharts and Nassi-Schneiderman diagrams are covered
in Appendices 1 and 2, while pseudocode has been chosen
as the primary method of representing an algorithm
because it is easy to read and write and allows the
programmer to concentrate on the logic of the problem
• Pseudocode is really structured English
– It is English that has been formalized and abbreviated to look
like high-level computer languages

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 Understanding Program Data

• Information processed by the computer is data.

1. a single variable, such as an integer or a

character, or

2. a group item (sometimes called an aggregate),

such as an array, or a file

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 Variables, Constants, and Literals

• A variable is the name given to a collection of

memory cells, designed to store a particular
data item
• It is called a variable because the value
stored in those memory cells may change or
vary as the program executes
• Example
total = num1 + num2

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 Variables, Constants, and Literals

• A constant is a data item with a name and a

value that remain the same during the
execution of the program

• A literal is a constant whose name is the

written representation of its value

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 Data Types

• At the beginning of a program, the

programmer must clearly define the form
or type of data to be collected

• The data types can be elementary data

items or data structures

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 Elementary Data Items

• An elementary data item is one containing a single variable

that is always treated as a unit

• The most common elementary data types are:

— Integer: holds a whole number

— Real: holds a decimal value, or is a number with a fractional part

— Character: holds a symbol such as a through z, 1 through 9, or !,

@,#,$,%,^, etc

— Boolean: holds either a value of true or false.

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 Data Structures

• A data structure is an aggregate of other data items

• The data items that it contains are its components, which
may be elementary data items or another data structure
• The most common data structures are:
— Records: a collection of data items or field related to each
other
— File: a collection of records
— Array: a collection of data items, all of the same type!

— String: a collection of zero or more characters.

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 Files

• There are two different methods of storing data

on files:
– Sequential or text files
– Direct or random-access files

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 Data Validation

• Data should always undergo a validation

check before it is processed by a program
• Different types of data require different
checks – for example:
– Correct type — Correct range
– Correct length — Completeness
– Correct date

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 Summary

• The steps in program development were introduced and

briefly described below:
1. Define the problem
2. Outline the solution
3. Develop the outline into an algorithm
4. Test the algorithm for correctness
5. Code the algorithm into a specific programming language
6. Run the program on the computer
7. Document and maintain the program

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 Summary

• Three different approaches to program design

were introduced, namely procedure-driven, event-
driven, and data-driven
• An algorithm was defined as a set of detailed,
unambiguous and ordered instructions
developed to describe the processes necessary
to produce the desired output from the given
input
• Pseudocode is an English-like way of
representing the algorithm

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 Quick Quiz

1. A(n) _____________ lists the steps involved in

accomplishing a task.
• ANSWER: algorithm

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 Quick Quiz

2. ___________ is structured English that has been

formalized and abbreviated to look like high-level
computer languages.
• ANSWER: Pseudocode

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 Quick Quiz

3. A(n) __________ is the name given to a

collection of memory cells, designed to store a
particular data item.
• ANSWER: variable

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 Quick Quiz

4. Name three of the most common elementary

data types.
• ANSWER: Integer, Real, Character, and Boolean

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 Quick Quiz

5. ___________ files may be opened to read or to

write, but not both operations on the same file.
• ANSWER: Sequential

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