Cement concrete is a major construction material

used worldwide.
The Major constituents of
concrete are :

 Cement
 Water
 Coarse aggregates
 Fine aggregates
 Admixtures, if required

Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with water due to a

chemical process known as hydration. The water reacts with the
cement, which bonds the other components together, eventually
creating a stone-like material when cast.
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 The Ingredients of concrete :
Cement : The major compounds in cement are C3S (Tricalcium
Silicate, C2S (Dicalcium Silicate), C3A (Tricalcium Aluminate) and
C4AF (Tetracalcium Alumino Ferrite).

The various types of cement used in concreting are :

 33 Grade ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS:269.

 43 Grade ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS:8112.
 53 Grade ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS:12269.
 Rapid hardening Portland cement conforming to IS:8041.
 Portland slag cement conforming to IS:455.
 Portland pozzolana cement (fly ash based) conforming to IS:1489 (Part-1)
 Portland pozzolana cement (calcined clay based) conforming to IS:1489
(Part-2)
 Hydrophobic cement conforming to IS:8043
 Low heat Portland cement conforming to IS:12600
 Sulphate resisting Portland cement conforming to IS:12330.
Choice of cement is one important aspect especially in case of sites with
aggressive subsoil and ground water conditions i.e. the exposure of
concrete towards sulphur and chloride attacks
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 Aggregates occupy 70 – 80% of the volume of concrete. The coarse
aggregate refers to particles larger than 4.75 mm and it acts as filler. The
fine aggregate refers to particles smaller than 4.75 mm but larger than 75
micron and it fills up the voids in the coarse aggregate
.
Different types of coarse aggregates are :
 Uncrushed gravel or stone which results from natural disintegration of
rock
 Crushed gravel or stone when it results from crushing of gravel or
hard stone.
 Partially crushed gravel or stone when it is a product of the blending of
(a) & (b).

Different types of fine aggregates are:

 Natural sand – Fine aggregate resulting from the natural disintegration of
rock and which has been deposited by streams or glacial agencies
 Crushed Stone sand–Fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone
 Crushed Gravel sand – Fine aggregate produced by crushing natural
gravel.
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Water used for mixing and curing shall be clean and free from oils,
acids, alkalis, salts, sugar, organic materials or other substances that
may be deleterious to concrete or steel. Potable water is generally
considered satisfactory for mixing concrete. The pH value of water
shall generally be not less than 6. Mixing or curing of concrete with
sea water is not recommended because of presence of harmful salts
which may react with rebar, embedment leading to corrosion and
cracks. Sea water contains chloride and sulphate salts which reacts
with the hardened cement of the concrete causing spalling and cracks
and thus damaging the concrete.

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Admixtures are used in concrete mix to improve various properties.
Admixtures should not impair strength and durability of concrete nor
combine with any of the constituents to form harmful compounds nor
increase the risk of corrosion of reinforcement. If two or more
admixtures are used simultaneously in the same concrete mix, data
should be obtained to assess their interaction and to ensure their
compatibility.

Types of admixtures used are as follows:

 Accelerating admixture
 Retarding admixture
 Air-entraining admixture
 Water reducing admixture
 Grouting admixture
 Water Proofing admixture
 Corrosion inhibiting admixture
 bonding admixture
 Concrete surface hardening admixture
 Gas-forming admixture etc.
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Workability is the measure of consistency of the concrete. It is the
ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mould properly
with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's
quality.

Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size

distribution), cement content and age (level of hydration), and can be
modified by adding chemical admixtures.
Raising the water content or adding chemical admixtures will increase
concrete workability.

Excessive water will lead to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or

segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to
separate), resulting concrete having reduced quality

Workability can be measured by the Compacting factor test or by Vee

time test . Concrete Slump Test may also be carried out.

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Concrete is generally graded according to its compressive strength.

In the designation of concrete mix, the letter M refers to the mix and the
numeric refers to the specified characteristic strength of concrete cubes of
150 mm size at 28 days, expressed in MPa (N/mm2).

The concrete of grades M5 and M7.5 are mainly used for lean concrete
bases, mass concrete, foundations for masonry walls and other simple or
temporary reinforced concrete constructions. These need not be of design
mix concrete

The concrete of grade M10 normally used for mass filling, encasing and
underground plain concrete work. Concrete grade of M15 are used for
encasing and minor structural work.

For plain and reinforced concrete, the minimum cement content,

maximum water cement ratio and minimum grade of concrete for different
exposures shall be as per Table-5 of IS:456 (2000).

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Batching plant is the unit where all ingredients of concrete are mixed
accurately in their right proportion and quantity. A batching plant
should conform to the stipulations of IS – 4925.

A batching plant may be a) Manual b) Semi automatic

c) Automatic type.
In general a batching plant is consists of
 Storage Bins for different sizes of
aggregates and cement.
 Batching equipments
 Mixers
 Control Panels
 Concrete heating and cooling
arrangement
 Mixing water re-cooling and heating
system or both ; and
 Material feeding and elevating
arrangements when required.
Concrete batching plants commonly used at site are of various Capacities
viz. 16, 30, 60, 90, 120 cum/Hour. Some of the brand names are Bhai,
Elba, / Winget / Johnson etc
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Concrete is filled in a Transit Mixer which
carries the same to the site. Transit mixers
have a revolving drum with an array of
blades inside which keeps on churning
concrete inside the drum and thus
prevents the segregation of concrete till it
reaches the site. Loss of water is also
minimum under normal conditions, but in
a place where temperatures are
excessively high, revolving drums are
wrapped with gunny bags and are kept
wet. To unload the concrete,
revolution of drum is reversed
by hydraulic mechanism,
actuated by a small lever at the
rear end of transit mixer.
These days transit mixers with
concrete pumping mechanism
and also with placing boom are
available.
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The concrete can be poured / placed in mould/Formwork for
column, beams, slabs, blocks, pavement, towers etc. by any of
the following means/methods
Head load - Manually deploying adequate
number of workers (human conveyor) and
using ready mix concrete by head load. It is
not economical and safe for mass concreting

Direct Chute - For foundations direct chutes

are used

Partly manual and partly by using builder

hoist. Directly discharging concrete into
receiving hopper of mobile concrete placer, a
self propelled machine fitted with short
conveyor belt with adjustable discharge end

Cont’d
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Cont’d

Concrete pumps (hydraulic operation)

stationary type fitted with delivery
pipes. The concrete is discharged into
hopper of the pump from where it is
pumped through delivery pipe to
desired location.

Mobile concrete pump attached with

delivery pipe and boom collapsible
type mounted on truck as a single
unit. The concrete from transit is
discharged into hopper of pump and
conveyed to the desired location

Pneumatic system of conveying

concrete, especially for small quantity
of concrete or screed concrete /lean
concrete/stiff mixers

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Curing is required for the concrete to achieve best strength and hardness.
This happens after the concrete has been placed. Cement requires a moist,
controlled environment to gain strength and harden fully. The cement paste
hardens over time, initially setting and becoming rigid though very weak, and
gaining in strength in the days and weeks following. In around 3 weeks, over
90% of the final strength is typically reached though it may continue to
strengthen for decades.

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Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)
Generally M7.5/M10 grades of concrete are used for PCC as blinding
concrete or mud mat as levelling pad below RCC

Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)

In reinforced concrete, which is weak in tension, steel bars of specific
grades are placed in structural members at specific positions to cater for all
the tensile as well as compressive stresses

High-strength Concrete (HSC)

High-strength concrete has a compressive strength generally > 40 MPa

High Performance Concrete (HPC)

“High Performance Concrete” is used for concrete mixture which possess
high workability, high strength, high modulus of elasticity, high density, high
dimensional stability, low permeability and resistance to chemical attack

Vacuum Dewatered Reinforced Concrete Flooring (VDRC)

Vacuum dewatered reinforced concrete (VDRC) is usually provided for
industrial flooring

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Ready-mix concrete is a type of concrete that is manufactured in a
factory or batching plant, according to a set proportion, and then
delivered to a worksite, by truck mounted transit mixers

Ready mixing is usually done in three possible ways:

 Central mixing
 Transit mixing or Truck mixing

The main advantages of Ready-mix Concrete

over Site-mix Concrete are the following:

 A centralized concrete batching plant can serve a wide area.

 Better quality concrete is produced.
 Elimination of storage space for basic materials at site.
 Elimination of procurement/hiring of plant and machinery.
 Wastage of basic materials is avoided.
 Labour associated with production of concrete is eliminated.
 Time required is greatly reduced.
 Noise and dust pollution at site is reduced.
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The main disadvantages of Ready-mix Concrete are the
following:
The materials are batched at a central plant, and the mixing
begins at that plant, so the travelling time from the plant to the
site is critical over longer distances. Some sites are just too far
away, though this is usually a commercial rather than technical
issue.

Access roads, and site access have

to be able to carry the weight of the
truck and load.

Concrete’s limited time span

between mixing and going-off means
that ready-mix should be placed
within 2 (two) hours of batching at
the plant.

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Heat-resistant concrete are made with Blast Furnace slag
cement conforming IS : 455.
Basult coarse aggregate conforming to Is : 383 and basult
sand conforming to IS : 383

HRC of M30 grade and above are recommended to withstand

the high temperature upto 700oC.

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The concrete in which reinforcing steel bars are stretched and
anchored to compress it and thus increase its resistance to
stress.

Concrete with stresses induced in it before use so as to counteract

stresses that will be produced by loads. Prestress is most effective with
concrete, which is weak in tension, when the stresses induced are
compressive. One way to produce compressive prestress is to place a
concrete member between two abutments, with jacks between its ends
and the abutments, and to apply pressure with the jacks. The most
common way is to stretch steel bars or wires, called tendons, and to
anchor them to the concrete; when they try to regain their initial length,
the concrete resists and is prestressed.

There are two ways of accomplishing:

 Pre-tensioned Concrete
 Post-tensioned concrete

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Pre-tensioned Concrete
Pre-tensioned concrete is cast around already tensioned steel
tendons. When the tension is released force is transferred to
concrete as compression by static friction.

Post-tensioned Concrete
Post-tensioned concrete is
a method of applying
compression after pouring
concrete and the curing
process.
For general requirement,
method of applying pre
and post tensioning
IS:1343 (1980) shall be
followed.

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Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous
material which increases its structural integrity. It contains short
discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly oriented.
Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural
fibers. Within these different fibers that character of fiber reinforced
concrete changes with varying concretes, fiber materials, geometries,
distribution, orientation and densities
The properties that are improved
by using fibres in cement concreteFRC are mainly used in the
/ mortar are: following areas:
 Fracture toughness  Pavements at the airfield
 Flexural strength  Bridge overlays, highways
 Ability to sustain increased and
deformation and to control cracks street pavement
 Resistance to fatigue  Industrial flooring
 Impact  Repair and new construction
 Thermal shock in
 Spalling of concrete etc. hydraulic structures
 Canal lining etc.
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Self-consolidating concrete, also known as self-compacting
concrete and SCC, is a highly flowable, non-segregating concrete that
spreads into place, fills formwork, and encapsulates even the most
congested reinforcement, all without any mechanical vibration. It is
defined as a concrete mix that can be placed purely by means of its
own weight, with little or no vibration. As a high-performance concrete,
SCC delivers these attractive benefits while maintaining all of
concrete's customary mechanical and durability characteristics.
Adjustments to traditional mix designs and the use of superplasticizers
creates flowing concrete that meets tough performance requirements.

Some of the advantages of using SCC are as follows:

Can be placed at a faster rate with no mechanical vibration and less
screeding, resulting in savings in placement cost.

Improved and more uniform architectural surface finish with little to

no remedial surface work.

Ease of filling restricted sections and hard to reach areas.

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Some of the advantages of using SCC are as follows:
(Cont’d)
Opportunities to create structural and architectural shapes and
surface finishes not achievable with conventional concrete.

Improved consolidation around reinforcement and bend with

reinforcement.

Improved pumpability

Limitations of SSC
Caution should be taken when using SCC in flatwork as it has
limited bleeding characteristics and may be subject to plastic
shrinkage cracking if not properly protected and cured. Higher
powder contents bleed less than conventional concrete and can
also lead to plastic shrinkage cracking if not properly cured.

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Shotcrete (also known by the trade name Gunite) uses
compressed air to shoot concrete onto into a prepared surface.
Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical or overhead
surfaces, as it eliminates the need for formwork Shotcrete is a
process where concrete is sprayed onto a surface using a
Shotcrete feeder gun.
A Shotcrete contractor can
trowel smooth or form the
Shotcrete for texture while it is
still wet. Once cured the
hardened properties of Shotcrete
are very similar to typical cast-in-
place concrete.

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the benefits of Shotcrete are :
 It has a high strength factor
 Lasting durability
 Easy to apply
 Low permeability
 Excellent bonding properties
 Unlimited possibilities for shape and design
 Due to the countless benefits of Shotcrete, in most cases it can be
used as a structural material.

Shotcrete Equipment & Tools

You will require the following tools
to apply or install Shotcrete:
 A small Shotcrete pump
 A spray Hose and nozzle for the
Shotcrete
 A safety equipment when applying
Shotcrete

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The Application of Shotcrete
The easy application of Shotcrete can be used to create
complex forms or shapes such as:

 River Bank Stabilization

 Tunnel lining construction
 Swimming Pools
 Marine structures
 Water Retaining Structures
 Repairing Works

Sheet 25 of 57
Pervian concrete is a mixture of coarse aggregate, cement,
water and little to no sand. Mostly used in pavements. A
typical pervian concrete pavement has a 15-20% void structure
and allows 1.5 to 3.5 litres of water per minute to pass through
each square meter.

The light weight concrete is a concrete whose density

varies from 300 to 1850 kg/m3.

Light weight concrete can be achieved the following ways:

 By using light weight aggregate.

 By introducing gas or air bubbles in mortar, i.e. aerated
concrete/foamed concrete.
 By omitting sand fraction from the aggregate i.e. no-fines concrete.

Sheet 26 of 57
RCC carries heavy loads, is now developing as a
fast, economical construction method for dams,
off-highway pavement projects, heavy-duty
parking and storage areas, and as a base for
conventional pavement. RCC is a stiff, zero-slump
concrete mixture with the consistency of damp
gravel comprised of local aggregates or crushed
recycled concrete, Portland cement, and water.
The mixture is placed and roller compacted with
the same commonly available equipment used for
asphalt pavement construction. The process
requires no forms, finishing, surface texturing, or
joint sawing and sealing.
Because of its low water-cement ratio, RCC
typically has high strengths similar to, or even
greater than, conventional concrete. RCC's high-
strength properties combined with ease of
construction and high rate of production often
make RCC more economical than a flexible
pavement. Additionally, more than 20 years of
exposure as logging roads in cold climates have
demonstrated that RCC has adequate resistance to
freezing and thawing.
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Asphalt concrete, normally known simply as asphalt or AC (in North
America), is a composite material commonly used for construction of
pavement, highways and parking lots. It consists of asphalt binder and
mineral aggregate mixed together then laid down in layers and
compacted

Base layer of asphalt Machine laying asphalt concrete,

concrete in a road under fed from a dump truck.
construction
Sheet 28 of 57
This type of concrete is able to develop high resistance within
few hours after being manufactured. This feature has
advantages such as removing the formwork early and to move
forward in the building process at record time, repair road
surfaces that become fully operational in just a few hours.

Is made of mixing rubber

aggregates obtained from
non usable tyres with
concrete mix. It increases
tensile strength of the mix
thus reducing crack on top.

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Polymer concrete is part of group of concretes that use polymers to
supplement or replace cement as a binder. The types include polymer-
impregnated concrete, polymer concrete, and polymer-Portland-cement
concrete
Advantages of polymer concrete include:

 Rapid curing at ambient temperatures

 High tensile, flexural, and compressive strengths
 Good adhesion to most surfaces
 Good long-term durability with respect to freeze and thaw cycles
 Low permeability to water and aggressive solutions
 Good chemical resistance
 Good resistance against corrosion
 Lightweight
Disadvantages:
Some safety issues arise out of the use of polymer concrete. The
monomers can be volatile, combustible, and toxic. Initiators, which are
used as catalysts, are combustible and harmful to human skin. The
promoters and accelerators are also dangerous. Polymer concretes also
cost significantly more than conventional concrete.
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Geo-polymer or green concrete are used in order to reduce global
warning. For this cases cement which emits more CO2 is replaced by
geo-polymerised material (may be with fly-ash, rice husk) etc.

Lime Concrete is prepared by mixing white lime, surkhi and brick

ballast in required proportion. These type of concrete is used in drop
slab of toilet and for water proofing of roof concrete.

Glass Concrete is normal concrete mixed with glass aggregates

and it is used for decorative purpose only.. This greatly enhances the
aesthetic appeal of the concrete. Recent research findings have shown
that concrete made with recycled glass aggregates have shown better
long term strength and better thermal insulation due to its better
thermal properties of the glass aggregates
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An expansion joint
is an assembly designed to
safely absorb the heat-induced
expansion and contraction of
various construction materials,
to absorb vibration, or to allow
movement due to ground
settlement or earthquakes. They
are commonly found between
sections of sidewalks, bridges,
railway tracks, piping systems,
and other structures.

Construction Joint
A vertical or horizontal surface
in reinforced concrete where
concreting was stopped and
continued later.
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Cutting / breaking of concrete can be done using
the following techniques :
By Jack Hammer
By Diamond cutting
Flat Sawing
Wall sawing
Wire Sawing
Hand/Chain Sawing
Core Drilling
Safety Grooving
By Blasting
Sheet 33 of 57
A Pneumatic Drill or Jack Hammer is a portable percussive
drill powered by compressed air . The same type of
equipment mounted to construction machinery can also
be hydraulically powered.

It is used to drill rock, concrete, to break up pavement etc.

It works similar to a hammer and chisel, by jabbing with its

bit, but not rotating it. (A drill driven by compressed air,
which rotates its cutting bit is called an air-drill or
familiarly, a windy-drill or rotary hammer.)

Although (road) breaker is used in some cases, Pneumatic

Jack hammer is widely used in breaking of mass
concrete like existing RCC foundation as breaking
through Jack hammer is faster and it saves time.

Sheet 34 of 57
 Flat Sawing :

Flat saws, sometimes called slab saws, are specifically designed

to cut flat horizontal surfaces, such as slabs on grade, structural
slabs, bridge decks, and pavement.

The Flat saw uses diamond blades from 8" - 60" diameter, yielding
cutting depths to 27" deep.

Variety of saws for cutting outside, inside, and in confined spaces

are used. The tools are gas powered, electric powered, hydraulic
powered etc.

Flat sawing is the fastest and most economical choice for creating
openings and trenches in concrete and asphalt.

Sheet 35 of 57
Sheet 36 of 57
 Wall Sawing :

Wall saws are the choice when an opening is required on walls or

inclines that a flat saw cannot reach.

The hydraulic wall saw is mounted to a steel track and the

diamond blade cuts through hard aggregate and steel reinforcing
to create clean cut openings.

The wall saws are capable of utilizing up to 60" blades yielding a

27" deep cut from one side.

Openings can be cut to exact specifications and completed in 1/4 -

1/2 the time it would take with conventional impact tools. Pieces
are then lifted out to leave a precise opening with no patching
required.

Sheet 37 of 57
Sheet 38 of 57
 Wire Sawing :

One of the most recent advances in diamond sawing technology is

the diamond wire saw.
This method, first used for mining huge sections of stone and
marble, is now being applied to the concrete cutting industry. This
hydraulic powered saw draws a multi stranded wire with diamond
beads across the material to be cut.
In the previous said techniques where the size of the blade was
used to determine depth of cut, here the cutting depth is almost
unlimited. If we can wrap a diamond wire around it of any shape &
size, we can cut it !
This tool is especially effective in the nuclear field where one can
find thick concrete, and no overcuts desired.

Sheet 39 of 57
Sheet 40 of 57
 Hand / Chain Sawing :

 Hand Sawing

 Hand held saws are often used in

tight areas or where short cuts in
concrete less than 10" thick are
needed.

 Handsaws are generally driven

by hydraulic, gas, or electric
power.

Sheet 41 of 57
 Hand / Chain Sawing :

 Chain Sawing

 Diamond chain saws are used

to cut block, brick, and
concrete up to 15" thick.

 Openings in walls and

structural slabs can be made
with no overcuts as opposed
to a circular diamond blade

Sheet 42 of 57
 Core Drilling
Where round holes are required, a diamond core drill is the
answer.
At Concrete Cutting Systems Inc. we can drill any size hole from
1/4" - 36" in diameter.
Core drill units consist of a diamond core bit, drill motor, drill post
and a power source such as electric, or hydraulic.
The most common uses are for openings for plumbing, electrical,
test cores, bumper posts, handrail, anchor bolts and thick
concrete demolition.

Sheet 43 of 57
 Safety Grooving:
 A Safety Groover is a specially
designed saw that makes a series of
evenly spaced saw cuts on floor
surfaces to provide traction and
promote water Evacuation.

 The same technology used on bridge

decks can now be used on all
commercial and industrial work areas
where slippery floor surfaces are
found.

 Unlike bush hammering and coatings,

safety grooving provides a long
lasting, uniform appearance.

 Wherever fall protection is a concern,

safety grooving is the answer.
Sheet 44 of 57
Blasting facilitates breaking of heavy mass of concrete
within a very short time.

Blasting is carried out where there is no other method

available for crushing / breaking of concrete.

Utmost care is taken while conducting blasting for

safety reasons.

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 The following tests are generally performed for
conducting the NDT of concrete structure.

Rebound Hammer Test

Sclerometric Test

Ultrasound Test
V-Meter MKIII™
Vu-Con™ System
E-Meter MK II™

Non-Destructive Testing with Ground Penetrating Radar

Sheet 46 of 57
 Rebound Hammer Test
The Schmidt Rebound Hammer also known as Swiss Hammer was
developed in 1948.

Rebound hammer test is done to find out the compressive strength of

concrete by using rebound hammer as per IS: 13311 (Part 2) – 1992.

Impact Hammer or simply Rebound Hammer measures the surface

hardness of concrete by releasing a spring loaded plunger which impacts
the concrete and measures the rebound distance.

This rebound hammer test examines only the concrete underneath on

relatively small contact area. The results are therefore, sensitive to local
variations in the concrete such as the presence of a large hard aggregate,
soft paste or voids.

The rebound value is read from a graduated scale and is designated as the
rebound number or rebound index.

The compressive strength can be read directly from the graph provided on
the body of the hammer.

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Interpretation of Results in Rebound Hammer Test:

 The rebound reading on the indicator scale has been calibrated by the
manufacturer of the rebound hammer for horizontal impact, that is, on a
vertical surface, to indicate the compressive strength.

 When used in any other position, appropriate correction as given by the

manufacturer is to be taken into account.

Rebound hammer
digital reading

Sheet 48 of 57
 Sclerometric Test :
The Sclerometric test technique is similar to the rebound hammer test.
However, it consists of and electronic block and a sclerometer.

Connect the sclerometer and the electronic block when the test is set out.
Switch on the power, the CST-MG4 is ready for operations, and then the
indicator display adjusts the test direction by pressing up or down or side
arrow accordingly.

The main feature of this equipment is an electronic block head which is

striking on the concrete surface upon releasing the hook.

The sclerometer must be placed perpendicular to the test surface by resting

on its three points firmly and evenly. Sufficient amount of pressure to be
imposed on the sclerometer at the time of test so that when the hook is
released the sclerometer does not displace or move.

Upon releasing the hook, block head strike on the concrete, the outcome
display on the electronic block indicator.

Sheet 49 of 57
Typical View of a Sclerometer

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 Ultrasound Test
This kind of tests are carried out with the range of instruments
that use sound or stress waves in order to determine the properties of
concrete and other materials non-destructively.

A few types of instruments and it’s utilities are detailed below :

V-Meter MKIII™ :
This is one of the most advanced
ultra-sonic test system for
accurately identifying basic
characteristics of coarse grained
materials like concrete, wood, etc.

Sheet 51 of 57
 Ultrasound Test (contd):

Vu-Con™ System:
This is an Impact Echo System used for measuring the thickness
and quality of concrete.

Sheet 52 of 57
 Ultrasound Test (contd):

E-Meter MK II™:

This is used for the determination of the resonant frequency of

the materials.

Sheet 53 of 57
E-Meter MK II™(contd):

 Determination of resonant
frequency of Materials:

 The E-Meter Mk II™ measures the

resonant frequencies of the three
different modes of vibration – E-Meter Mk II time domain signal allows to
visualize the vibration of the specimen
Longitudinal, transverse (Flexural)
and torsional.

 From these the following material

characteristics can be calculated –
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity,
Modulus of Rigidity and Poisson’s
Ratio.
E-Meter Mk II frequency domain Spectrum

Sheet 54 of 57
 Non-Destructive Testing with Ground
Penetrating Radar

The latest application of the subsurface radar is to non-

destructively inspect the concrete structures.

It is quick, easy, safe and effective way to locate buried

obstructions in concrete structures prior to coring or cutting.

It is also faster and safer than radiography.

Here only single-sided access is needed and hence it is

convenient to use in places where only one surface is
accessible.

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Non-Destructive Testing with Ground Penetrating Radar

Sheet 56 of 57
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