Chapter 11

Transient Stability
Depending on the severity of the disturbance, the rotor angle
instability can be classified into two categories:

‘‘infinite bus’’ behind a system reactance.

An infinite bus is an ideal voltage
a) Small signal instability source that maintains constant voltage
magnitude, constant phase, and
b) Transient Stability constant frequency.
Power system stability

1. In general terms, power system stability refers to that

property of the power system which enables the system to
maintain an equilibrium operating point under normal conditions
and to attain a state of equilibrium after being subjected to a
disturbance.

2. As primarily synchronous generators are used for generating

power in grid, power system stability is generally implied by the
ability of the synchronous generators to remain in ’synchronism’
or ’in step’.

3. On the other hand, if the synchronous generators loose

synchronism after a disturbance, then the system is called
unstable.
Basic concept of ‘Synchronism’

1. In the normal equilibrium condition, all the synchronous

generators run at a constant speed and the difference between
the rotor angles of any two generators is constant.

2. Under any disturbance, the speed of the machines will deviate

from the steady state values due to mismatch between
mechanical and electrical powers (torque) and therefore, the
difference of the rotor angles would also change.

3. If these rotor angle differences (between any pair of

generators) attain steady state values (not necessarily the same
as in the pre-disturbance condition) after some finite time, then
the synchronous generators are said to be in ’synchronism’.
Basic concept of ‘Synchronism’ cont…

4. If the rotor angle differences keep on increasing indefinitely,

then the machines are considered to have lost ’synchronism’.

5. Under this ‘out of step’ condition, the output power, voltage

etc. of the generator continuously drift away from the
corresponding pre-disturbance values until the protection system
trips the machine.

6. The above phenomenon of instability is essentially related with

the instability of the rotor angles and hence, this form of
instability is termed as ’rotor angle instability’. This instability is
triggered by the occurrence of a disturbance.
Basic concept of ‘Synchronism’ cont…

Depending on the severity of the disturbance, the rotor angle

instability can be classified into two categories:

Small signal instability:

In this case, the disturbance occurring in the system is small.
Such kind of small disturbances always take place in the system
due to random variations of the loads and the generation.

Transient instability:
In this case, the disturbance on the system is quite severe and
sudden and the machine is unable to maintain synchronism
under the impact of this disturbance.
Basic concept of ‘Synchronism’ cont…

Transient instability: In this case, the disturbance on the

system is quite severe and sudden and the machine is unable to
maintain synchronism under the impact of this disturbance.
Case 1. under the influence of the fault, the generator rotor
angle increases to a maximum, subsequently decreases and
settles to a steady state value following oscillations with
decreasing magnitude.
Basic concept of ‘Synchronism’ cont…

Case 2. The rotor angle decreases after attaining a maximum

value. However, subsequently, it undergoes oscillations with
increasing amplitude. This type of instability is not caused by the
lack of synchronizing torque; rather it occurs due to lack of
sufficient damping torque in the post fault system condition.
Basic concept of ‘Synchronism’ cont…

case 3. The rotor angle monotonically keeps on increasing due

to insufficient synchronizing torque till the protective relay trips it.
This type of instability, in which the rotor angle never decreases,
is termed as ’first swing instability’.
Basic concept of ‘Synchronism’ cont…

 Apart from rotor angle instability, instability can also occur

even when the synchronous generators are maintaining
synchronism.

 For example, when a synchronous generator is supplying

power to an induction motor load over a transmission line, the
voltage at the load terminal can progressively reduce under
some conditions of real and reactive power drawn by the load.

 In this case, loss of synchronism is not an issue but the

challenge is to maintain a stable voltage. This type of instability
is termed as voltage instability or voltage collapse.
Def: Load Angle in synchronous machine is defined as the angle
between the filed mmf or flux and the resultant air gap mmf or flux.
Load angle and power angle are same thing which are used
synonymously.
Load angle is also defined as the angle between the no load
excitation voltage Ef and terminal voltage Vt. Note that this
definition is having no difference with the previous definition.
How?
This is because; under no load condition the emf will be induced
in the armature or stator winding just because of the field flux or
rotor flux Øf. This emf will be lagging by 90 degree with the field
flux.
Transient stability of a power system using swing equation:
A synchronous generator supplied with input shaft power PS producing
mechanical torque = TS . TS rotate the generator at a speed of ω rad/sec
and the produces output electromagnetic torque (TE)and power
generated (PE) on the receiving end respectively. There is some relative
angular displacement between the rotor axis and the stator magnetic
field, known as the load angle δ which is directly proportional to the
loading of the machine. The machine at this instance is considered to be
running under a stable condition.
Now if we suddenly add or remove load from the machine the rotor
decelerates or accelerates accordingly with respect to the stator
magnetic field. The operating condition of the machine now becomes
unstable and the rotor is now said to be swinging w.r.t the stator field
and the equation we so obtain giving the relative motion of the load
angle δ w.r.t the stator magnetic field is known as the swing equation for
transient stability of a power system.
Generator-Grid Interaction
11.1 The Swing Equation
Consider a generating unit consisting of a three-phase
synchronous generator and its prime mover. The rotor motion is
determined by Newton’s second law, given by

J m (t )  Tm (t )  Te ( t )  Ta (t )
J=total moment of inertia of the rotating masses, kgm2

m= rotor angular acceleration, rad/s2

Tm = mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover minus the
retarding torque due to mechanical losses, Nm

Te =electrical torque that accounts for the total 3-phase electrical

power output of the generator, plus electrical losses, Nm

Ta = net accelerating torque, Nm

11.1 The Swing Equation cont…

Also, the rotor angular acceleration is given by:

m = rotor angular velocity, rad/s

m = rotor angular position with respect to a stationary axis, rad

11.1 The Swing Equation cont…

J m (t )  Tm (t )  Te ( t )  Ta (t )

Tm and Te are positive for generator operation. In steady-state Tm

equals Te, the accelerating torque Ta is zero the rotor
acceleration am is zero, resulting in a constant rotor velocity
called synchronous speed.

When Tm is greater than Te, Ta is positive and m is therefore

positive, resulting in increasing rotor speed. Similarly, when Tm is
less than Te, the rotor speed is decreasing.
11.1 The Swing Equation cont…

It is convenient to measure the rotor angular position with

respect to a synchronously rotating reference axis instead of a
stationary axis.

msyn =Synchronous angular velocity of the rotor, rad/s

m = Rotor angular position with respect to a synchronously

rotating reference, rad
J m (t )  Tm (t )  Te ( t )  Ta (t )
11.1 The Swing Equation cont…

J m (t )  Tm (t )  Te ( t )  Ta (t )

It is also convenient to work with power rather than torque, and

to work in per-unit rather than in actual units. Accordingly, we
multiply above by m and divide by Srated, the three-phase volt-
ampere rating of the generator:
11.1 The Swing Equation cont…

Pmpu=mechanical power supplied by the prime mover minus

mechanical losses, per unit

Pepu= electrical power output of the generator plus electrical

losses, per unit
11.1 The Swing Equation cont…

Finally, it is convenient to work with a normalized inertia constant,

called the H constant, which is defined as

The H constant has the advantage that it falls within a fairly

narrow range, normally between 1 and 10 p.u.-s, whereas J
varies widely, depending on generating unit size and type.
11.1 The Swing Equation cont…

For a synchronous generator with P poles, the electrical angular

acceleration , electrical radian frequency , and power angle 
are

Synchronous electrical radian frequency is

modified to also include a term that represents a damping torque anytime the
generator deviates from its synchronous speed, with its value proportional to
the speed deviation

per-unit swing equation

EXAMPLE 11.1 Generator per-unit swing equation and power angle during a short circuit
A three-phase, 60-Hz, 500-MVA, 15-kV, 32-pole hydroelectric generating unit
has an H constant of 2.0 p.u.-s and D=0. (a) Determine syn and msyn. (b) Give
the per-unit swing equation for this unit. (c) The unit is initially operating at
Pmp.u.= Pep.u.=1.0, =syn, and =10o when a 3-phase to-ground bolted short
circuit at the generator terminals causes Pep.u. to drop to zero for t0.
Determine the power angle 3 cycles after the short circuit commences.
Assume Pmp.u. remains constant at 1.0 per unit. Also assume p.u. (t) =1.0 in the
swing equation.
EXAMPLE 11.1 Generator per-unit swing equation and power angle during a short circuit
A three-phase, 60-Hz, 500-MVA, 15-kV, 32-pole hydroelectric generating unit
has an H constant of 2.0 p.u.-s and D=0. (a) Determine syn and msyn. (b) Give
the per-unit swing equation for this unit. (c) The unit is initially operating at
Pmp.u.= Pep.u.=1.0, =syn, and =10o when a 3-phase to-ground bolted short
circuit at the generator terminals causes Pep.u. to drop to zero for t0.
Determine the power angle 3 cycles after the short circuit commences.
Assume Pmp.u. remains constant at 1.0 per unit. Also assume p.u. (t) =1.0 in the
swing equation.

c. The initial power angle is (t) = 10o = 0:1745 radian

Using swing equation: given Pmp.u=1; Pep.u=0, p.u.=1, & =10o
EXAMPLE 11.1 Generator per-unit swing equation and power angle during a short circuit
c. The initial power angle is (t) = 10o = 0:1745 radian
Using swing equation: given Pmp.u=1; Pep.u=0, p.u.=1, & =10o

Integrating twice and using the above

initial conditions,

At t =3 cycles =(3 cycles) /(60 cycles/second )= 0.05 second,

 EXAMPLE 11.2 Equivalent swing equation: two generating
units

Self: Do It

When transient stability studies involving large-scale power

systems with many generating units are performed with a digital
computer, computation time can be reduce by combining the
swing equations of those units that swing together. Such units,
which are called coherent machines, usually are connected to
the same bus or are electrically close, and they are usually
remote from network disturbances under study.
11.2 Simplified synchronous machine model & system Equivalents

Figure shows a simplified model of a synchronous machine,

called the classical model, that can be used in transient stability
studies. As shown, the synchronous machine is represented by a
constant internal voltage E0 behind its direct axis transient
reactance X/d . This model is based on the following assumptions
1. The machine is operating under balanced 3-phase positive
sequence conditions.
2. Machine excitation is constant.
3. Machine losses, saturation, and saliency are neglected.
……
the simplified model reduces model complexity while maintaining
reasonable accuracy in stability calculations.
Each generator in the model is connected to a system consisting
of transmission lines, transformers, loads, and other machines.
To a first approximation the system can be represented by an
‘‘infinite bus’’ behind a system reactance. An infinite bus is an
ideal voltage source that maintains constant voltage
magnitude, constant phase, and constant frequency. Figure
shows a synchronous generator connected to a system
equivalent. The voltage magnitude Vbus0o phase of the
infinite bus are constant. The phase angle  of the internal
machine voltage is the machine power angle with respect to the
infinite bus.
FIGURE 11.2 Simplified synchronous machine model for transient stability studies

During transient disturbances both E/ and Vbus are considered constant

Pe is a sinusoidal function of the machine power angle .
11.3 EQUAL AREA CIRTERIA
Consider a synchronous generating unit connected through a
reactance to an infinite bus. Plots of electrical power pe &
mechanical power pm versus power angle  are shown in Fig pe is
a sinusoidal function of , as given by

Figure:
pe & pm
vs 
Suppose the unit is initially
operating in steady-state at
pe = pm = pm0 and  =0,
when a step change in pm
from pm0 to pm1 occurs at t =
0. Due to rotor inertia, the
rotor position cannot
change instantaneously.
That is, m(0+)= m(0-);
therefore, (0+)= (0-)=o
and pe(0+)= pe(0-).
Since pm(0+)= pm1 is greater than pe(0+), the acceleration power
pa(0+) is positive and, (d2)/(dt2)(0+) is positive. The rotor
accelerates and  increases. When  reaches 1, pe=pm1 and
(d2)/(dt2) becomes zero. How ever, (d)/(dt) is still positive and 
continues to increase, overshooting its final steady-state
operating point. When  is greater than 1, pm is less than pe, pa
is negative, and the rotor decelerates.
Find the difference between the two Figures
EXAMPLE 11.3 Generator internal voltage and real power output versus power angle

Figure 11.4 shows a single-line diagram of a three-phase, 60-Hz

synchronous generator, connected through a transformer and
parallel transmission lines to an infinite bus. All reactance's are
given in per-unit on a common system base. If the infinite bus
receives 1.0 per unit real power at 0.95p.f. lagging, determine
(a) the internal voltage of the generator and (b) the equation for
the electrical power delivered by the generator versus its power
angle .
SOLUTION: The
equivalent circuit is
shown in Fig, from
which the equivalent
reactance:
(a)

= 0.30 + 0.10 + 0.20 (0.10 + 0.20)= 0.520 per unit

The current into the infinite bus is

Machine internal voltage

P.U.

(b)
EXAMPLE 11.4 Equal-area criterion: transient stability during a
three-phase fault The synchronous generator shown in Figure is
initially operating in the steady-state condition given in Example
11.3, when a temporary three-phase to-ground bolted short circuit
occurs on line 1–3 at bus 1, shown as point F in Figure. Three
cycles later the fault extinguishes by itself. Due to a relay
misoperation, all circuit breakers remain closed. Determine whether
stability is or is not maintained and determine the maximum power
angle. The inertia constant of the generating unit is 3.0 per unit-
seconds on the system base. Assume pm remains constant throughout
the disturbance. Also assume p.u(t)=1.0 in the swing equation.

Xeq= 0.30 + 0.10

+ 0.20 (0.10 +
0.20)= 0.520 p.u.
 Example 11.3: The infinite
bus receives 1.0 p.u. real
power at 0.95p.f. lagging,

SOLUTION: Plots of pe and pm versus d are shown in Figure 11.7.

From Example 11.3 the initial operating point is pe(0-)=pm=1.0 per
unit and (0+)= (0-)=o=23.95o=0.4179 radian. At t=0, when the
short circuit occurs, pe instantaneously drops to zero and remains
at zero during the fault since power cannot be transferred past
faulted bus 1. From (11.1.16), with p.u.(t)=1.0,
 At t=0, short circuit occurs, pe=0

Integrating twice with initial condition (0)= 0 and d(0)/dt=0,

At t=3 cycles =0.05 second,

=0.4964 radian=28.44o

The accelerating area A1, shaded in Figure

At t=0.05 s the fault extinguishes and pe instantaneously increases
from zero to the sinusoidal curve in Figure 11.7.  continues to
increase until the decelerating area A2=A1. That is,

Integrating,

The above nonlinear algebraic equation can be solved iteratively to

obtain 2=0.7003 radian=40.12o
Since the maximum angle 2 does not exceed 3=(180o-0)= 156.05o,
stability is maintained. In steady-state, the generator returns to its
initial operating point pess=pm=1.0 p.u. & ss=0= 23.95.

Note that as the fault duration increases, the risk of instability

also increases. The critical clearing time, denoted tcr, is the
longest fault duration allowable for stability.
EXAMPLE 11.5: Equal-area criterion: critical clearing time for a
temporary 3-phase fault Assuming the temporary short circuit in
Example 11.4 lasts longer than 3-cycles, calculate critical clearing time.
SOLUTION The p– plot is shown in Fig. At the critical clearing
angle, denoted cr, the fault is extinguished. The power angle then
increases to a maximum value 3=180o- 0= 156.05 = 2.7236 rad,
which gives the maximum decelerating area. Equating the
accelerating and decelerating areas,

3=2.7236 rad
Example 11.4
 3=2.7236 rad

cr
Solving for cr,
cr
cr

cr

From Example 11.4-swing equation:

 3=2.7236 rad

From Example 11.4-swing equation:

Using (tcr)= cr =1.5489 & o = 0:4179 rad

= 0.1897s = 11.38 cycles

If the fault is cleared before t =tcr=11.38 cycles, stability is maintained. Other

wise, the generator goes out of synchronism with the infinite bus  UNSATBLE
EXAMPLE 11.6 : critical clearing angle for a cleared 3-phase fault
The synchronous generator in Fig11.4 is initially operating in the
steady state condition given in Exple 11.3 when a permanent 3-
phase-to ground bolted short circuit occurs on line 1-3 at bus 3.
The fault is cleared by opening the circuit breakers at the ends of
line 1-3 and line 2-3. These circuit breakers then remain open.
Calculate the critical clearing angle. As in previous examples,
H=3.0p.u.-s, pm=1.0 p.u. & p.u.=1.0 in the swing equation.
SOLUTION: From Example 11.3,
the equation for the prefault
electrical power, denoted pe1
here, is pe1= 2.4638 sin p.u.
The faulted network is Faulted Network

Thevenin
Eq Faulted
Network Post fault conditions
shown in Fig, and the The´venin equivalent of the faulted
network, as viewed from the generator internal voltage source,
is shown in Fig. The The´venin reactance is XTh=0.40+
0.20‖0.10=0.46666 per unit and the The´venin voltage source is

Thevenin
Eq
Faulted
Network
 accelerating
area A1 and
decelerating
area A2

Post fault electrical

power delivered,
denoted pe3, is
Post fault conditions
 accelerating
area A1 and
decelerating
area A2

If the fault is cleared before =cr=111.5o, stability is maintained.

Otherwise, stability is lost.
Neglecting losses, the difference between the mechanical
and electrical torque gives the net accelerating torque Ta. In
the steady state, the electrical torque is equal to the
mechanical torque and hence the accelerating power is
zero.[1] During this period the rotor moves at synchronous
speed ωs in rad/s. The electric torque Te corresponds to the
net air-gap power in the machine and thus accounts for the
total output power of the generator plus I2R losses in the
armature winding.
The angular position θ is measured with a stationary
reference frame. Representing it with respect to the https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swing_E
synchronously rotating frame gives: quation
where, δm is the angular position in rad with respect to the
synchronously rotating reference frame. The derivative of the above
equation with respect to time is

Where:

• is the total moment of inertia of the rotor mass in kg-m 2

• is the angular position of the rotor with respect to a stationary axis in (rad)
• is time in seconds (s)
• is the mechanical torque supplied by the prime mover in N-m
• is the electrical torque output of the alternator in N-m
• is the net accelerating torque, in N-m
In order to determine the transient stability of a power system using swing equation, let us
consider a synchronous generator supplied with input shaft power PS producing mechanical
torque equal to TS as shown in the figure below. This makes the machine rotate at a speed of ω
rad/sec and the output electromagnetic torque and power generated on the receiving end are
expressed as TE and PE respectively.
When, the synchronous generator is fed with a supply from one end and a constant load is
applied to the other, there is some relative angular displacement between the rotor axis and the
stator magnetic field, known as the load angle δ which is directly proportional to the loading of
the machine. The machine at this instance is considered to be running under a stable condition.

Now if we suddenly add or remove load from the machine the rotor decelerates or accelerates
accordingly with respect to the stator magnetic field. The operating condition of the machine
now becomes unstable and the rotor is now said to be swinging w.r.t the stator field and the
equation we so obtain giving the relative motion of the load angle δ w.r.t the stator magnetic
field is known as the swing equation for transient stability of a power system.

https://www.electrical4u.com/transient-stability-and-swing-equation/
Example: A generator is operating al a load angle of 30° and transmitting power over two
parallel lines. The load angle across the lines is 25°. If all of the load is slowly shifted to
one power line. will the line and load remain stable?

An,wer; Using the 'ame power transfer equations as before. And assuming P, YL and YT all
remain constant, then sin lit. is proportional 10 XL When lit. is 25°, sin lit. = 0.423 with line
reactance of XL. When XL increases to 2XL, sin lit. will increase to 2(0.423) = 0.845.
This gives a new value ofau for the line load angle where au = arc sin 0.845 = 57.6°, this gives a
combined load angle for the generator and line of (30° + 57.6°) = 87.6°.

Under this condition the generator and line are operating at just less than 90° and will
therefore remain stable. II should be appreciated that any slight change in generator output or
other conditions will cause the system to become unstable. It would be most undesirable to
operate under these conditions.
11.16 Two-Axis Synchronous Machine Model
The classical model for a synchronous machine provides a
useful mechanism for introducing transient stability concepts, it is
only appropriate for the most basic of system studies. Also, it
cannot be coupled with the exciter and governor models that will
be introduced in the next chapter. The analysis of more detailed
and more realistic synchronous machine models requires that
each machine model be expressed in a frame of reference that
rotates at the same speed as its rotor. The standard approach is
to use a d-q reference frame in which the major ‘‘direct’’ (d) axis
is aligned with the rotor poles, and the quadrature (q) axis leads
the direct axis by 90o. The rotor angle  is then defined as the
angle by which the q-axis leads the network reference frame see
Figure. The equation for transforming the network quantities to
the d-q reference frame is given
 Reference frame
transformations

where the terminal voltage in the network reference frame is

VT=Vr+jVi. A similar conversion is done for the currents.
Numerous different transient stability models exist for
synchronous machines. The two-axis model, which models the
dynamics associated with the synchronous generator field winding and
one damper winding, while neglecting the faster sub-transient damper
dynamics and stator transients, provides a nice compromise. For
accessibility, machine saturation is not considered. With the two-axis
model, the electrical behavior of the generator is represented by two
algebraic equations and two differential equations
Generator-Grid Interaction
Physical Structures
Real Power Control: Block Diagram
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR CONSTRUCTION

A non salient
two-pole rotor
for a
synchronous
machine. A salient six-pole rotor for
a synchronous Machine.
Nonsalient pole Salient Pole
Synchronous Machine
The damper winding consists of short circuited
copper bars embedded in the face of the rotor
poles When there is change in load, excitation or
change in other conditions of the systems, rotor
of the synchronous motor/generator will oscillate
to and fro about an equilibrium position.

Field Field
Winding Winding

Two Pole Cylindrical Rotor Machine Four Pole Salient Rotor Machine
 Synchronous Machines

Stator of a salient pole hydro generator; the insulated conductors and spacers.
 Synchronous Machines

Large hydro generator rotor with view of the vertical poles.

 Synchronous Machines

Slip
rings

Pole

DC excitation
winding
Fan
Rotor of a four-pole salient pole generator.
FIGURE 5-3 A brushless exciter circuit. A small three-phase current is rectified and used to
supply the field circuit of the exciter, which is located on the stator. The output of the armature
circuit of the exciter (on the rotor) is then rectified and used to supply the field current of the
main machine.
FIGURE 5-4: Photograph of a synchronous machine rotor with a brush less exciter mounted on
the same shaft. Notice the rectifying electronics visible next to the armature of the exciter.
(Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Company.)
FIGURE 5-5: A brushless excitation scheme that includes a pilot exciter. The permanent magnets
of the pilot exciter produce the field current of the exciter. which in turn produces the field
current of the main machine.
 Fig 5-3 (Page 253) Brushless exciter

Synchronous Machine Main Field

Slip
rings

Pole

DC excitation
winding
Fan

ROTOR

STATOR Main Armature

Red

Yellow
Three-Phase output
Blue
If,
ϕd is the direct axis flux
Φq is the quadrature axis flux
Rd is the reluctance of the direct axis flux path
 BY APPLYING PARK’S
TRANSFORMATION, THE TIME
VARYING INDUCTANCES
BECOME CONSTANTS
The rotor flux BR is shown vertically upwards as shown in the figure below. The rotor flux
induces a voltage Ef in the stator. The stator armature current Ia will flow through the
synchronous motor when a lagging power factor load is connected it. This stator armature
current Ia lags behind the generated voltage Ef by an angle Ψ.
The armature current produces stator magnetomotive force Fs. This MMF lags behind Ia by
angle 90 degrees. The MMF FS produces stator magnetic field BS long the direction of Fs. The
stator MMF is resolved into two components, namely the direct axis component Fd and the
quadrature axis component Fq.
Salient Pole Synchronous Machine Two Rection
Theory

In the cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, the

air gap is uniform. The pole structure of the rotor
of a salient pole machine makes the air gap highly
non-uniform. Consider a 2 pole, salient pole rotor
rotating in the anticlockwise direction within a 2
pole stator as shown in the figure below.

The axis along the axis of the rotor is called the direct or the d axis. The axis perpendicular to d
axis is known as the quadrature or q axis. The direct axis flux path involves two small air gaps
and is the path of the minimum reluctance. The path shown in the above figure by ϕq has two
large air gaps and is the path of the maximum reluctance.
 FlGURE 4- 19
A simplified synchronous
machine showing its rotor
and stator magnetic fields.

F = i(lxB) = ilBs sin

=180o- 
sin  = sin ( 180° - ) = sin 

TIle net magnetic field in this machine is the vector sum of the rotor and stator fields
B net , = BR + Bs
B net = BR+ Bs
net = kBR x Bs
But from Equation (4- 59), Bs = BDe, - BR,
so
"Tind = kBR x (BDe, - BR)
= k(BR x B"",) - k(BR x BR)
Since the cross product of any vector with
itself is zero, this reduces to

where  is the angle between BR and Bnet

 Over−Excited Under−Excited

Motor Operation, Under-and Over-Excited

Over−Excited Under−Excited
Generator Operation, Under-and Over-Excited
 POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

Introduction:
Stability of a power system is its ability to return to normal or
stable operating conditions after having been subjected to
some form of disturbance. Conversely, instability means a
condition denoting loss of synchronism or falling out of step.
Though stability of a power system is a single phenomenon,
for the purpose of analysis, it is classified as Steady State
Analysis and Transient Stability. Increase in load is a kind of
disturbance. If increase in loading takes place gradually and in
small steps and the system withstands this change and
performs satisfactorily, then the system is said to be in STADY
STATE STABILITY. Thus the study of steady state stability is
basically concerned with the determination of upper limit of
machine’s loading before losing synchronism, provided the
loading is increased gradually at a slow rate.
In practice, load change may not be gradual. Further, there may
be sudden disturbances due to
i) Sudden change of load
ii) Switching operation
iii) Loss of generation
iv) Fault Following such sudden disturbances in the power
system, rotor angular differences, rotor speeds, and power
transfer undergo fast changes whose magnitudes are
dependent upon the severity of disturbances. For a large
disturbance, changes in angular differences may be so large as
to cause the machine to fall out of step. This type of instability is
known as TRANSIENT INSTABILITY. Transient stability is a fast
phenomenon, usually occurring within one second for a
generator close to the cause of disturbance.
Short circuit is a severe type of disturbance. During a fault,
electrical powers from the nearby generators are reduced
drastically, while powers from remote generators are scarily
affected. In some cases, the system may be stable even with
sustained fault; whereas in other cases system will be stable
only if the fault is cleared with sufficient rapidity. Whether the
system is stable on the occurrence of a fault depends not only
on the system itself, but also on the type of fault, location of
fault, clearing time and the method of clearing. Transient stability
limit is almost always lower than the steady state limit and hence
it is much important. Transient stability limit depends on the type
of disturbance, location and magnitude of disturbance. Review
of mechanics Transient stability analysis involves some
mechanical properties of the machines in the system. After every
disturbance, the machines must adjust the relative angles of
their rotors to meet the condition of the power transfer involved.
The problem is mechanical as well as electrical.
Importance of Reactive Power
•Reactive power balance is achieved by adjusting voltage magnitudes.
–Too high reactive power causes overvoltage.
–Too low reactive power causes undervoltage.
•Helps to minimize voltage drops along the line and therefore the
transmission system is effectively used.
•Unlike real power production that is supplied by only generators,
reactive power production can come from several sources.
•Unlike real power, reactive power cannot be transported to a long
distance because X>>R for transmission lines.
 Source and Sink of Reactive Power

Source Sink
•Synchronous generator operated
•Synchronous generator
in ‘overexcited’ mode. operated in ‘underexcited’
•Capacitor banks. mode.
•Capacitance of overhead lines and •Shunt reactors.
cables. •Inductance of overhead
•Compensating devices such as lines, cables, and
FACTS (flexible AC transmission transformers.
systems). •Inductive loads, motors.
•FACTS devices
 Examples of Compensation Techniques

Series compensation
Shunt compensation
•Series capacitor
•Shunt reactor
•Use during heavy load condition to
•Use during light load condition to dampen
boost up the voltage magnitude.
the voltage magnitude.
Reactive Power and Voltage Control
Generator Excitation System
•Generator system.
•The exciter delivers DC power to
the field winding on the rotor of a
synchronous generator.
•“Automatic Voltage Regulator”
(AVR)
•Reactive power control of a
generator.
•98 Fast “dynamic”
instantaneous response.
Other Voltage Control Devices
•Transmission system.
•Reactive shunt devices
•Transformer tap changers
•  Slower ‘static’ response in
seconds and minutes.
•Flexible AC transmission system
(FACTS) controllers
–Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
–STATic Synchronous COMpensator
(STATCOM)
–Unified power flow controller
(UPFC)
•  Fast “dynamic” instantaneous
response.
Reactive Power Output

• When we increase field current, the magnetic field is intensified. As a

result, internal excitation voltage is increased. The reactive power
output is increased.
• Two operating conditions of a generator: supplying reactive power is
called overexcited and absorbing reactive power is called underexcited.
Basic Generator Control Loops
A Simplified Block Diagram
•Generators are operated at constant voltage through automatic
voltage regulator (AVR).
•A simplified block diagram ignores nonlinearities from exciter
saturation and limits on exciter output.
•Stabilizing compensator is used to improve dynamic response of the
exciter by reducing excessive overshoot. Thus, its simplified transfer
function contains ‘s’ derivative term.
Generator Excitation Systems

•To supply electricity to field winding circuit so that the main flux
of the rotor is generated.
•The terminal voltage magnitude is controlled by the excitation
system.
•Contain several control, protection, and supervisory functions.
–Ensure physical and thermal limits are not exceeded.
–Current limiters, over-excitation protection, under-excitation
protection.
–Basically, make sure that the reactive power supply is within the
generator capability.
Different Types of Excitation Systems

•DC excitation system

–An exciter is DC generator.
•AC excitation system
–An exciter is AC machine with rectifier.
•Static excitation system
–DC and AC exciters are sometimes call ‘rotating exciters’ because
they contain rotating machines.
–The exciter winding is fed through a transformer and a controlled
rectifier.
–The source of energy can be from the generator terminal (network)
or batteries.
–This type of machine can be started against unenergised network
‘black start’ using batteries to feed field circuit.
Series Compensation Technique

•At full load, the sending end voltage is too high compared to
receiving end voltage.
•We can connect the capacitor in series to the load to help reduce the
sending end voltage in the heavy load condition.
Shunt Compensation Technique

•At no load, the receiving end voltage is higher than the usual full
load case because the sending end voltage remains constant.
•We can connect the inductor in parallel to the load to help reduce the
receiving end voltage in the light load condition.
Transformer Tap Changer Control

•Transformers with tap

changer are used to adjust
the voltage by changing the
turns ratio.
•Tap-changing transformers
are used to regulate the
voltage at the end users to
be at the desired value.
•This can be done both off-
line and on-line.

On-Load Tap Changers (OLTC), Online

FACTS Controllers

•Technologies to improve capacity and reliability of the current

transmission systems, which helps to delay the construction of new
transmission lines.
•Design to create ‘intelligence’ in the grid to enhance system
performance, optimization, and control.
• Example
–Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
–STATic Synchronous COMpensator (STATCOM)
–Unified power flow controller (UPFC)
•Learn more about this topic from the case study.
Voltage Stability

•“Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain steady

voltages at all buses after being subjected to a disturbance.”
•A major contributing factor is lack (or excess) of reactive power
support causing voltage drop (or over voltage).
•Instability may cause:
–Loss of load,
–Tripping of transmission lines or other protective devices causing
cascading outages, or,
–Loss of synchronism of some generators.
Rotor Angle Stability of Synchronous Generators in Power System
Rotor Angle Stability:
Rotor angle stability is the ability of the interconnected synchronous machines running in the power system to remain
in the state of synchronism. Two synchronous generators running parallel and delivering active power to the load
depends on the rotor angle of the generator (load sharing between alternators depends on the rotor angle).
During normal operation of the generator, rotor magnetic field and stator magnetic field rotates with the same speed,
however there will be an angular separation between the rotor magnetic field and stator magnetic field which depends
on the electrical torque (power) output of the generator.
An increase in the prime mover speed (turbine speed) will result in the advancement of the rotor angle to a new
postion realtive to the rotating magnetic field of the stator. On the other hand reduction in the mechanical torque will
result in the fall back of the rotor angle relative to the stator field.
In equilibrium condition there will be equilibrium between the input mechanical torque and output electrical torque of
each machine (generator) in the power system and speed of the machines will remain same. If the equilibrium is upset
which results in the acceleration or deceleration of rotors of the machines.
If one of the inter connected generator moves faster temporarily with respect to the other machine. rotor angle of the
machine will advance with respect to slow machine. This results in the load deliver by faster generator increases and
load delivered by slow machine decreases. This tends to reduce the speed difference between the two generators and
also the angular separation between the slow generator and fast generator.
Beyond certain point the increase in the angular separation will result in decrease of power transfer by the fast
machine. This increases the angular separation further and also may lead to instability and synchronous generators fall
out of synchroism.

Read more: http://electricalquestionsguide.blogspot.com/2011/12/rotor-angle-stability-

synchronous.html#ixzz4y0d5kHAI
A plot of δ versus t called the swing curve shown in Figure 3 and two
cases are possible:
If δ star to decrease after reaching a maximum value, the machine
remains stable, and if δ continues to increase indefinitely, the machine
loses synchronism and become unstable.
So, the system is stable if d δ/dt =0
The system is unstable if d δ/dt>0

swing curve
•Generator-Voltage control
–Reactive power control
•Turbine-Governor control
–Real power control
•Load-Frequency control
–Bring frequency back to the nominal value.
Schematic Diagram of a Steam-Turbine Generator
Basic Generator Control Loops
Reactive Power and Voltage Control

Other Voltage Control Devices

Generator Excitation System
•Reactive shunt devices
•The exciter delivers DC power to the field
•Transformer tap changers
winding on the rotor of a synchronous
•Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)
generator.
controllers
•“Automatic Voltage Regulator” (AVR)
–Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
•Reactive power control of a generator.
–STATic Synchronous COMpensator
(STATCOM)
–Unified power flow controller (UPFC)
 Real Power and Frequency Control

Turbine-Governor control Load-Frequency control

•Primary control loop •Secondary control loop
•Real power control •Automatic Generation Control, “AGC”.
•Immediate (automatic) action to sudden •Detect deviation in frequency and tie-line
change of load. power flows.
•Governor accelerate/decelerate, which •Adjust the input power to each generator to
affects the frequency bring back:
–System frequency
–Tie-line flow agreement

to nominal value.
Automatic Generation Control (AGC)

Purpose of AGC
•To maintain power balance in the system.
•Make sure that operating limits are not exceeded:-
–Generators limit
–Tie-lines limit
•Make sure that system frequency is constant (not change by load).
3 Components of AGC
•Primary control “Turbine-Governor Control”
–Immediate (automatic) action to sudden change of load.
–For example, reaction to frequency change.
•Secondary control “Load-Frequency Control”
–To bring tie-line flows to scheduled.
–Corrective actions are done by operators.
•Economic dispatch
–Make sure that the scheduled of units are done in the
most economical way.
•This presentation covers only primary and secondary
control of AGC.
Basic Control Theory
•Analysis and design of a control
system requires the mathematical
modeling of the system.
–Transfer function method
–State variable method
•In this lecture, we will use
transfer function method.
•See the lecture note on basic
control and MATLAB simulink.
Basic Frequency Control Loops
Real Power Control: Block Diagram
11.2 simplified synchronous machine model - classical model used in transient stability

Constant internal voltage E/ behind its direct axis transient

reactance X/d . assumptions:
1. three-phase positive sequence conditions; 2. Machine
excitation is constant. 3. Machine losses, saturation, & saliency
are neglected, still reasonable accuracy in stability calculations.

Each generator in the model is connected to a system consisting

of transmission lines, transformers, loads, and other machines.
‘‘infinite bus’’ behind a system reactance.
An infinite bus is an ideal voltage source that maintains
constant voltage magnitude, constant phase, and constant
frequency. Figure 11.3 shows a synchronous generator
connected to a system equivalent. Vbus & 0o phase of the infinite
bus=constant. The phase angle  of the internal machine voltage
is the machine power angle with respect to the infinite bus.
The equivalent reactance between the machine internal voltage
and the infinite bus is Xeq = (X/d + X).
Transposition

The coupling effect is caused by asymmetric distance between phase conductors.

Simple solution  Make the distance between phase conductor equal.

By transposing the line, we can reduce (or eliminate) the coupling effect between phases
from both magnetic field and electric field.