Leaves:

Form and structure

 The Plant Body: Leaves
• FUNCTION OF LEAVES
– Leaves are the solar energy
and CO2 collectors of plants.

– In some plants, leaves have

become adapted for
specialized functions.
 And so, on to leaves
• Leaves are the principle
structure, produced on stems,
where photosynthesis takes
place.

• Cacti are an exception. The

leaves are reduced to spines, and
the thick green, fleshy stems are
where photosynthesis takes
place.
 General leaf form
• Leaves are the main photosynthetic
organs of most plants
– but green stems are also
photosynthetic.

– While leaves vary extensively in

Blade
form, they generally consist of a
flattened blade and a stalk, the
petiole, which joins the leaf to a
stem node.

– In the absence of petioles in Petiole

grasses and many other monocots,
the base of the leaf forms a sheath
that envelops the stem.

• Most monocots have parallel major

veins that run the length of the blade,
while dicot leaves have a multi
branched network of major veins.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as

Benjamin Cummings
Leaf Arrangement on the Stem

Opposite: 2 leaves at a node,

on opposite sides of the stem

Spiral: 1 leaf per node, with the

second leaf being above the first
but attached on the opposite
side of the stem

Whorled: 3 or more leaves at a

node
 Leaf Arrangement on the Stem

• Plant taxonomists use leaf shape, spatial arrangement of leaves,

and the pattern of veins to help identify and classify plants.

– A Simple leaves have a single, undivided blade, while compound

leaves have several leaflets attached to the petiole.

– A Compound leaf has a bud where its petiole attaches to the

stem, not at the base of the leaflets.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Venation = arrangement
of veins in a leaf
• Netted-venation = one or a
few prominent midveins
from which smaller minor
veins branch into a
meshed network;

• common to dicots and

some nonflowering plants.
– Pinnately-veined leaves =
main vein called midrib with
secondary veins branching
from it (e.g., elm).

– Palmately-veined leaves =
veins radiate out of base of
blade (e.g., maple).
Venation = arrangement
of veins in a leaf

• Parallel venation =
characteristics of many
monocots (e.g., grasses,
cereal grains); veins are
parallel to one another.

• Dichotomous venation = no
midrib or large veins;
rather individual veins have
a tendency to fork evenly
from the base of the blade
to the opposite margin,
creating a fan-shaped leaf
 Leaves - Comparisons
Monocots and dicots differ in the arrangement of
veins, the vascular tissue of leaves

Most dicots have Monocots have parallel

branch-like veins and leaf veins and longer,
palmate leaf shape slender blades
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

• Each part of the leaf has an important job.

chloroplasts

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Conserves water

Photosynthesis

Transports water
and sugar to stem
Structures of the Leaf and roots
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Structures of the
Leaf
Cuticle – the outermost layer of both
the upper and lower surfaces of the
leaf. It is clear and waxy to prevent
against water loss.

Epidermis – a layer of cells one cell

thick that provides protection for the
inner tissues. These cells are clear to
allow light to reach the photosynthetic
tissues.

Mesophyll – between the epidermal

layers. It contains palisade cells that
are tall, tightly packed, and filled
with chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

It also has spongy cells which are

irregularly shaped, have large air
spaces between them, and fewer
chloroplasts.
Structures of the
Leaf
Stomates – openings in the surface of
the leaf and stems for gas exchange.
The lower surface of a leaf usually has
more. Water vapor also passes out
through these holes.

Guard cells – two of these special cells

surround each stomate and regulate
the opening and closing of the stomate.

Veins – contain the vascular tissue that

is continuous with that in the stem.
Xylem carries water and minerals
upward. Phloem carries dissolved food
throughout the plant.
Typical Dicot Leaf Cross-Section

Cuticle
Epidermis
Palisade
Parenchyma

Vascular
bundles

Guard
Spongy
Cells
Parenchyma
Stoma
 Typical Monocot Leaf Cross-Section

Midvein Bundle
Vein Epidermis
sheath cell
Phloem

Xylem

Bulliform
Stoma
Cells
 Function of the Leaf
• Photosynthesis
• Gaseous exchange
– take in O2 and release CO2 during
respiration
– take in CO2 and release O2 during
photosynthesis

Water Vapour can be lost from the

surface of the leaf in a process known
as Transpiration.
 TRANSPIRATION
• Plants must supply water to all
their tissues. It moves from the
roots up the stem to the leaves by
capillary action.

• Most of the water plants take up is

lost to the atmosphere by
evaporation.

• The evaporation of water vapor

from plant surfaces is called
transpiration.

• Most takes place through

stomates.
• The rate of transpiration is regulated
by the size of the opening of the
stomates.
• They are usually closed when there is
too little water available, temperature
is low, or there is little light.
• Most plants open their stomates during
the day and close them at night.
• This is controlled by
the guard cells.
 Stomatal control
• Almost all leaf transpiration
results from diffusion of water
vapor through the stomatal pore
– waxy cuticle
• Provide a low resistance pathway
for diffusion of gasses across
the epidermis and cuticle

• Regulates water loss in plants

and the rate of CO2 uptake
– Needed for sustained CO2
fixation during
photosynthesis
 Stomatal control
• When water is abundant:
• Temporal regulation of
stomata is used:
– OPEN during the day
– CLOSED at night
• At night there is no
photosynthesis, so no demand
for CO2 inside the leaf
• Stomata closed to prevent
water loss
• Sunny day - demand for CO2 in
leaf is high – stomata wide
open
• As there is plenty of water,
plant trades water loss for
photosynthesis products
 Stomatal control
• When water is limited:
– Stomata will open less
or even remain closed
even on a sunny morning
• Plant can avoid
dehydration

• Stomatal resistance can

be controlled by opening
and closing the stomatal
pores.

• Specialized cells – The

Guard cells
GUARD CELLS AND PLANT HOMEOSTASIS

• Guard cells are kidney-shaped with

thick inner walls and thin outer walls.
• When they become full of water
(turgid) the unevenness of the walls
causes them to bow outward and the
stomate opens.
• When they lose water they become less
turgid and the stomate closes.
• Guard cells gain
and lose water by
osmosis.
 Stomatal guard cells
• Guard cells act as hydraulic valves
• Environmental factors are sensed by guard
cells
– Light intensity, temperature, relative
humidity, intercellular CO2 concentration
• Integrated into well defined responses
– Ion uptake in guard cell
– Biosynthesis of organic molecules in guard cells
• This alters the water potential in the guard cells
• Water enders them
• Swell up 40-100%
Relationship between water loss and
CO2 gain
• Effectiveness of controlling water loss and allowing CO2
uptake for photosynthesis is called the transpiration ratio.

• There is a large ratio of water efflux and CO2 influx

– Concentration ratio driving water loss is 50 larger than
that driving CO2 influx

– CO2 diffuses 1.6 times slower than water

• Due to CO2 being a larger molecule than water
– CO2 uptake must cross the plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
and chloroplast membrane. All add resistance
 water status of plants
• Cell division slows down
• Reduction of synthesis of:
– Cell wall
– Proteins
• Closure of stomata

• Due to accumulation of the

plant hormone Abscisic acid
– This hormone induces
closure of stomata during
water stress

• Naturally more of this

hormone in desert plants
 Plants and water
• Water is the essential medium of life.

• Land plants faced with dehydration by water loss to the

atmosphere

• There is a conflict between the need for water conservation

and the need for CO2 assimilation
– This determines much of the structure of land plants
– 1: extensive root system – to get water from soil
– 2: low resistance path way to get water to leaves – xylem
– 3: leaf cuticle – reduces evaporation
– 4: stomata – controls water loss and CO2 uptake
– 5: guard cells – control stomata.
 Photosynthesis
• One of the most important biochemical
process in plants.
– Let’s not forget cell wall biosynthesis and
adaptation during plant development, growth,
interaction with the environment, and disease
defense.
• Among the most expensive biochemical
processes in plant in terms of investment

• The biochemical process that has driven

plant form and function
 General overall reaction

6 CO2 + 6 H2O C6H12O6 + 6 O2

Carbon dioxide Water Carbohydrate Oxygen
Photosynthetic organisms use solar energy to synthesize
carbon compounds that cannot be formed without the input
of energy.

More specifically, light energy drives the synthesis of

carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water with the
generation of oxygen.
C3 and C4 Leaf structure
 The C4 carbon Leaf
• This is a biochemical pathway that prevents
photorespiration
• C4 leaves have TWO chloroplast containing
cells
– Mesophyll cells
– Bundle sheath (deep in the leaf so
atmospheric oxygen cannot diffuse
easily to them)
• C3 plants only have Mesophyll cells

• Operation of the C4 cycle requires the

coordinated effort of both cell types

– No mesophyll cells is more than three

cells away from a bundle sheath cells
• Many plasmodesmata for
communication
 Specialized or Modified
Leaves
• Drought-resistant leaves = thick, sunken
stomata, often reduced in size

• In American cacti and African euphorbs,

leaves are often reduced such that they serve
as spine to discourage herbivory and reduce
water loss

• The stems serve as the primary organ of

photosynthesis.
 Specialized or Modified
Leaves
• In pine trees, the leaves are adapted to living
in a dry environment too.

• Water is locked up as ice during significant

portions of the year and therefore not
available to the plant; pine leaves possess
– sunken stomata,
– thick cuticles
– needle-like leaves
– hypodermis, which is an extra cells just
underneath the epidermis –
 Cotyledons or “seed leaves”

First leaves produced by a germinating seed

Often contain a store of food (obtained from the endosperm)
to help the seedling become established.
 Tendrils

Garden Pea

Tendrils - blade of leaves or leaflets are

reduced in size, allows plant to cling to
other objects (e.g., sweet pea and
garden peas.
 Specialized Leaves
Figure 11.8 (1)
• Some plants obtain nitrogen from
digesting animals (mostly insects).

• The Pitcher plant has digestive

enzymes at the bottom of the trap

• This is a “passive trap” Insects fall

in and can not get out

• Pitcher plants have specialized

vascular network to tame the amino
acids from the digested insects to
the rest of the plant
 Specialized Leaves
Figure 11.12 (2)
• The Venus fly trap has an “active
trap”

• Good control over turgor pressure

in each plant cell.

• When the trap is sprung, ion

channels open and water moves
rapidly out of the cells.

• Turgor drops and the leaves slam

shut

• Digestive enzymes take over

The End.
Reported By:
Bryan Lugtu
Jesfher Maun