MEB3205 MINE VENTILATION

BY
Eng. NASASIRA MICHAEL BAKAMAA
Tel: +256705310326, +256772696734
Email: mackleankirabo@gmail.com
Course Objectives

To introduce students to the principles of airflow in mine openings

and the design of ventilation systems.
To ensure optimum mine working conditions.
To allow students analyze health hazards associated with ventilation
of mines and the required measures to minimize such risks.
Learning outcomes

At the end of this course, a student should be able to:

Apply the principles of airflow in mine openings and the design of
ventilation systems
Design, monitor and maintain optimum mining working conditions
Analyze health hazards associated with ventilation of mines and the
required measures to minimize such risks
PART 1: THE ATMOSPHERE OF UNDERGROUND MINE WORKINGS

1.The air of mine workings

1.1 Atmospheric air
It is a mixture of gases and vapours.
Its physical state and chemical composition are continuously
changing within space and time.
Its composition is almost constant within the 20 km above earth
surface, due to its high turbulence.
Composition by volume(%)of atmospheric air
Nitrogen – 78.08;
Oxygen – 20.95;
Argon – 0.93;
Carbon dioxide – 0.03;
Other gases – 0.01.
Composition of Atmospheric air
The composition of atmospheric air is continuously changing, due
to the following
The intrusions of different gases and dusts from industrial
installations, volcanoes, etc.
Large volumes of harmful gases (CO, NO, lead vapor etc) are being
added into the atmosphere from vehicles, leading into its
pollution.
1.2 Variation of the composition of air in mine
headings
The composition of atmospheric air undergoes the following
changes as it moves through mine headings:
Content of oxygen goes down, carbon dioxide up;
Physical state (pressure, temperature, velocity and humidity) also
changes;
Intrusion of gases being generated from rock massif and on
going technological processes takes place:
Definitions of terms used
Mine air: Atmospheric air that has entered mine workings and
subjected to Changes.
Fresh mine air: Mine air occupying mine workings from entry point
into the mine up to the mining and development faces.
Worked (spoiled) mine air: Mine air occupying mine workings from
mining and development faces up to the exit point from the mine.
The air entering the faces of development headings through air ducts
is called fresh,
 that going away from the faces, along heading ways is called
worked/spoiled
Definition of terms used cont’d
Ventilation district: Part of a mine, which has an independent
intake commencing from a main intake air-course and an
independent return airway terminating at the main return air-course.
1.3 The constituent components of mine air
(i) Oxygen
It is a gas without colour, taste or smell, and with a density 1.11 relative
to the density of air at 0◦C and 101.3257 kPa.
Its relative density in normal conditions is 1.428 kg/m³
Solubility in water at 0◦C is 5 % by volume.
The minimum concentration of oxygen, which is allowed in the mine air, is 19 –
19.5 % by volume.
When air is moving along mine headings, its oxygen content decreases due to
oxidation processes,
ongoing blasting and welding works;
 fires,
 methane and dust explosions
(ii) Carbon dioxide (𝑪𝑶𝟐 )
It is gas which is colourless and odorless, but having a distinctly acidic taste.
Density is 1.52,
solubility in water at 0◦C is 179.7 by volume.
Density at normal conditions is 1.96 kg/m³

In the mines, 𝐶𝑂2 is generated from;

Oxidation of woods, coal, rocks, as well as
From blasting works,
Fires,
Methane and coal dust explosions,
 Human breathing.
.
Allowed concentration of carbondioxide in the
mines
The maximum allowed concentration of 𝐶𝑂2 in mine headings is:
On working places and in the outgoing streams of mine sections
≤ 0.5 %;
In the outgoing streams from mine wings, levels or the mine as a
whole ≤ 0.75 %;
In the development and repair of headings in rock burst ≤ 1 %.
(iii) Nitrogen (𝑁2 )

It is gas, which is colourless, odourless and tasteless.

Density 0.97, at normal conditions 1.25 kg/m³
Solubility in water at 0◦C is 2 %.
The increasing content of 𝑁2 in the air has influence on humans
consequent to the resulting drop of 𝑂2 concentration in the air.
1.4 Poisonous, explosive and other harmful
gaseous admixtures in the mine air
These gases are:
Carbon monoxide,
Nitrogen oxides,
Sulphur dioxide,
Hydrogen sulphide,
Vapours of Arsenic,
Mercury,
Hydrogen cyanide,
The main explosive admixtures

These gases are:

Methane,
Hydrogen,
Heavy hydrocarbons,
Ammonia,
Acetylene,
Diesel vapours etc.
The poisonous gas admixtures in the mine air
(i) Carbon monoxide (CO)
It is colourless, odourless and tasteless. Its density is 0.97 and at
normal conditions 1.25 kg/m³
Its solubility in water at 0◦C is 3.3 %.
Carbon monoxide burns and explodes in air when its concentration
in it is 12.5 - 75 %.
Its strongest explosion is achieved at its concentration of 30 % in the
air.
Carbon monoxide cont’d
Carbon monoxide is highly poisonous due to its great affinity for the
hemoglobin in blood, and by displacing oxygen it quickly causes
death.
Oxygen combines with the hemoglobin in blood to form
oxyhemoglobin -𝐻𝑏𝑂2 .
Carbon monoxide combines with the hemoglobin in blood to form
carboxyhemoglobin - HbCO.
 Carbon monoxide has over 200 times the affinity of oxygen for the
hemoglobin in blood.
Its effect is cumulative and a small % in the air is continuously absorbed
until its effect becomes noticeable.
The main sources of CO in the mines are blasting works.
Measures taken to reduce Carbon monoxide
concentration in the mine atmosphere
Avoiding incomplete detonations of explosives;
Avoiding inclusions of fine coal in stemming materials;
Using explosives with zero OB and with special additives added
in the explosive itself, as well as, in the packaging material of
explosive cartridges and in the hole stemming materials.
Carbon monoxide cont’d
Detection of CO in mines
Done with the help of chemical detectors and canaries. Small traces
of CO make canaries drop to the floor.
The allowed CO concentrations in mine headings
In active headings and with the presence of miners in for long
periods, CO concentration in the mine air should be ≤ 0.0016 % by
volume.
 Before miners could be allowed to go into the production faces at
end of blasting, the tentative CO content is: 6.5 (CO + NO2) should
be ≤ 0.008 % (on condition that the ventilation of faces is carried out
continuously for 2 hrs)
(ii) Nitrogen oxides

Generated from blasting works;

It is a mixture of NO, 𝑁𝑂2 , 𝑁2 𝑂4 , 𝑁2 𝑂5 ;
These oxides have a reddish brown colour and irritating smell and are
liberated from incomplete detonation of explosives;
Most stable in air are: 𝑁𝑂2 and 𝑁2 𝑂4 .
Nitrogen oxides are considered the most dangerous of the poisonous
mine gases;
Very irritating to the breathing air passages;
Few hours after exposure bronchitis develop and are fatal if gas
concentrations are high.
Prevention of nitrogen oxides buildup in the
mine atmosphere
Measures taken;
Use explosives with zero oxygen balance or with small negative
OB and with special additive;
Avoid incomplete detonation of explosives
Detection of nitrogen oxides in the mine atmosphere
The simplest test for nitrogen oxides in the mine atmosphere is using
a paper soaked in a solution of potassium iodide and starch blue.
In the presence of the oxides, the paper turns blue by liberating
iodine.
(iii) Sulphur dioxide – 𝑺𝑶𝟐

It is colorless and having acidic taste and offensive odor

(extremely offensive at concentrations of 0.005 %);
Density 2.22, in normal conditions 2.86 kg/m³
At 20◦C, in 1 volumes of water dissolves 40 volumes of 𝑆𝑂2 ;
𝑆𝑂2 is highly poisonous: very irritating to the mucous membranes
and causes muscular weakness and fainting.
Concentration of 0.05% has fatal consequences for short-lived
breathing.
Sources of 𝑺𝑶𝟐 in the mine workings
The sources include;
Some mineral springs;
Blasting works in sulphidic rocks and sulphur containing explosives;
Mine fires/explosions;
Massif rocks.
The maximum allowed concentration of 𝑆𝑂2 in the mine atmosphere
For active mine workings, the concentration of 𝑆𝑂2 shouldn’t be
higher than 0.00035 % by volume.
(iv) Hydrogen sulphide - 𝑯𝟐 S

It is gas, which is colorless and having offensive odor (smell of

rotten eggs which is extreme at concentrations ≥ 0.0001 %);
Density 1.19, in normal conditions 1.52 kg/m³;
At 0◦C, 1 volume of water dissolves 4.4 volumes of 𝐻2 S;
𝐻2 S burns and at its concentration of 6 % in air, it explodes;
𝐻2 S is very poisonous, its impact on the respiratory system is similar
to that 𝑆𝑂2
Short-lived breathing exposure to 𝐻2 S concentration of 0.1%
could cause death
Sources of 𝑯𝟐 S in the mine workings
The sources include;
Rock massif (especially from salt rock seams);
Mineral sources;
Decomposing organic materials, decaying mine waters which contain
sulphidic rocks;
Mine fires;
Blasting (incomplete detonation of explosives, burning of detonating
cord).
The allowed concentration of 𝐻2 S in the mine atmosphere
Not higher than 0.00066 % by volume in active workings.
Special precautions against 𝑯𝟐 S in the mine
atmosphere
Since 𝐻2 S is highly soluble in water, disturbing standing waters
when going through abandoned mine workings should be avoided
because doing so could cause a massive liberation of the dissolved in
𝐻2 S .
(v) Ammonia (𝑵𝑯𝟑 )
It is colorless and having acute smell;
Its density is 0.596, at normal conditions 0.77 kg/m³;
Good solubility in water;
Explosive at its concentration of 30% in air;
Gas is poisonous, irritating to mucous membranes and skin.

The allowed concentrations of 𝑵𝑯𝟑 in the mine atmosphere

Not higher than 0.0025 % by volume.
Sources of 𝑵𝑯𝟑 in the mine workings

Disintegration of Nitrogenous compounds;

Blasting, fire suppression (when water is in contact with
incandescent -hot coal);
Certain types of rock
(vi) Vapours of Arsenic (As), mercury (Hg) and
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)
Very rare admixtures in the mine air;
Could liberate from blasting and massif rocks containing these
minerals;
Highly poisonous.
1.4.2 The explosive gas admixtures in the mine
atmosphere:
(i) Hydrogen (𝑯𝟐 )
Colorless;
Density 0.07, at normal conditions 0.09 kg/m³;
Solubility in water at 0℃and 101.33 kPa is 2.1 %;
𝑯𝟐 is combustible and explosive when its concentration in air is 4 - 74
%;
Its temperature of ignition is by 100 to 200 ℃ lower than that
for methane;
𝑯𝟐 diffuses through porous partitions more easily than other gases.
Sources of 𝑯𝟐 in the mine workings

The sources include;

Rock massif;
Potassic seams and coal of the average degree of metamorphism;
Batteries charging
The allowed maximum concentration of 𝑯𝟐 in the mine air is 0.5 %.
(ii) Heavy hydrocarbons, acetylene

Most common hydrocarbons, which are encountered in the mine air,

are ethane (𝐶2 𝐻6 ), propane (𝐶3 𝐻8 ) and butane (𝐶4 𝐻10 )
The sources of these gases in the mine atmosphere
Mining in poorly metamorphosed coals;
Blasting works;
All three hydrocarbons are explosive and cause narcotic sensations in
the air.
Acetylene 𝐶2 𝐻4 : It is an explosive admixture in the mine air
Sources of 𝐶2 𝐻4 : Blasting works. The gas is rarely encountered
in the mines.
(iii) Compressor gases (CO, 𝑪𝑯𝟒 etc)

When compressors are operating, decomposition of oil greases

happens, liberating compressor gases (CO, 𝑪𝑯𝟒 etc), which are
transported in the compressed air into mine workings and could
be potential sources of explosion or poisoning
(iv) Radioactive mixtures in the mine air
Gaseous products of the decomposition of certain ores – radioactive
elements (emanations);
The most common radioactive gaseous products which are
encountered in mines are: Radon (Rn), thorium (Tn) and actin (An),
e.g. when mining uranium and thorium ores, radon is generated into
the mine workings
Dangers of radioactive elements (Emanations)
The danger of emanations arises from their ionizing radiation that causes
the following problems:
Destruction of the cells of living organism;
Formation (in the 𝐻2 O solutions of organism) of hydrogen peroxides
that causes structural alterations on the protein molecules and
inactivation of the enzymes of vital importance to the life of organism.
METHANE
Methane and its physicochemical properties
One of the explosive admixtures in mine air;
Colorless, odorless and tasteless;
Density: 0.5539, at normal conditions 0.716 kg/m³;
Solubility in water at 100.2 KPa and 20℃ is 3.5 %.
With air, 𝐶𝐻4 forms combustible and explosive mixtures: If its
concentration in air is 5 - 6%, 𝐶𝐻4 becomes neither combustible nor
explosive, but could burn if a heat source is nearby and there is an
influx of oxygen from outside.
The strength of explosion is dependent on the concentration of
methane in the air.
Methane cont’d
Strongest explosion occurs at methane concentration of 9.5%,
since at this point there is just enough oxygen for complete
combustion.
 For 𝐶𝐻4 concentration greater than 14 to 16 % its self-
extinction happens and explosion wont occur.
The most easily ignited 𝐶𝐻4 – air mixtures are ones containing 7 to
8% 𝐶𝐻4 .
The explosion limits of CH4– air mixture.
Explosive limits of Methane-air mixture
Explosive limits of 𝐶𝐻4 – air mixture widens with the increase
of her initial temperature and the pressure of mixture.
CH4– air mixture explodes for a 𝐶𝐻4 concentration of 5.9 - 17.2 %.
The induction period of 𝑪𝑯𝟒 explosion
It is the time delay from the moment of its contact with heat
source and ignition to occur.
The existence of induction period allows for the possibility of taking
measures to prevent 𝐶𝐻4 explosion by using permissible
explosives whose period of detonation flame is shorter than the
induction period of 𝐶𝐻4
Methane explosion
When 𝐶𝐻4 explosion happens in mines, two shocks are observed: the head –
on and the head - back shock waves.
The head – on shock: Explosion wave propagating from the center of
explosion towards the periphery of shockwave, igniting all of 𝐶𝐻4 gas volumes
distanced far away from the center of explosion.
The head – back shock: Explosion wave propagating back towards the
center of explosion, caused by the vacuum created there after the cooling of
the gaseous products of explosion and the condensation of the water vapors
formed from explosion.
Occurrences and forms of methane
association with rocks
The processes of 𝐶𝐻4 formation
The processes of methane formation happened simultaneously with the formation
of coal seams and the metamorphism of the original organic matter.
As a result of the metamorphism of the original organic material, under the cover
of overburden and denied oxygen access, formation of methane took place and its
higher homology: 𝐻2 S, 𝑁𝐻3 and 𝐻2 .
Great role here was played by the processes of methane fermentation, which
resulted from the action of anaerobic bacteria.
Decomposition of cellulose probably happened in accordance to the following
schemes:

Similar processes of 𝐶𝐻4 formation could occur in other conditions of the

decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen supply
The forms of CH4association with rocks

In rocks 𝐶𝐻4 occurs in two forms.

Free gas
 associated gas
Major portion of 𝐶𝐻4 occurs in the form of its association with rocks
The three forms of gas association with hard material are:
 Gas molecules attaching on the surface of hard material under the support
of the forces molecular attraction;
Penetration of gas molecules into the hard material without any chemical
interaction, forming the hard solution;
Chemical association between the molecules of gas and hard material.
Forms of 𝐶𝐻4 generation into the mine
workings
The forms of 𝐶𝐻4 generation are:
The normal;
The blower;
The sudden outburst
Normal 𝐶𝐻4 generation
Occurs through the fine - invisible cracks in coal.
The higher the normal 𝐶𝐻4 generation, the higher is the methane
capacity and permeability of coal, as well as the gas pressure.
In the initial moments of seam opening, the intensity of 𝐶𝐻4
generation is very high, followed by a quick sudden fall and practically
ending after a period of 6 – 8 months.
Forms of methane generation cont’d
Blower 𝐶𝐻4 generation
Generation of 𝐶𝐻4 from larger - eye visible cracks and voids in the coal and rocks.
Discharge could reach tens of thousands of cubic meters per day for periods
varying from several hours to years.
 This form of 𝐶𝐻4 generation is dangerous because it occurs suddenly, causing the
increment of 𝐶𝐻4 concentration in the mine workings.
Sudden 𝐶𝐻4 outburst
A large quantity of gas, mixed with fine coal throws into the mine workings within
a very short period of time. As a result large voids are formed in the coal seam,
and mine workings are filled with milled coal and gas – tens, hundreds of meters
away from the point of sudden outburst.
 The quantity of 𝐶𝐻4 generated could reach 500,000 m³or more, and coal mass – up to
5000 tonnes. Sudden 𝐶𝐻4 outbursts could occur in the development and mining
faces within the seams categorized as gas dangerous and when crossing geological
faults.
Methane Capacity & allowed 𝑪𝑯𝟒 concentrations in
workings.
The quantity of methane generated into a mine (working) and the
category of methane dangerousness of the mine is characterized by
her methane capacity.
Absolute methane capacity
It is the quantity of methane generated into a mine (working) per time unit
(Usually m³/day)
Relative methane capacity
It is the total quantity of methane generated into a mine (working) per
tonne of mined coal.
Depending on the relative methane capacity, underground coal and non-
coalmines are divided into five and four categories respectively
Methane Categories of mines