Geophysical Applications

Mine Waste Piles

Bruce D. Smith, USGS
bsmith@usgs.gov

GSA Workshop
Characterization and Toxicity Assessment of Mine-Waste Sites

November 13, 2004

Denver, Colorado

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
 Flow Chart for Ranking and Prioritization
(Geophysics)
Site Geophysics
Physical Prop
Detailed Borehole
Geophysical & Characterization Ground surveys
Remote Sensing Reconnaissance
Methods Regulatory

Watershed Geophysics
-ASTM standards
Ground
for some methods
Airborne
-Licensing issue in
Satellite
some states

Scale
Microscopic Site Watershed Regional
 Why Geophysics????

• Non invasive (usually)

• Rapid surface and subsurface

mapping information

• Money: Survey costs can be high but

savings can be great

• Airborne no access problems (PRP

issues) and large areas
 What’s the Objective
• Physical property mapping
(conductivity for example)

• Trends and hot spots

(anomalies)

• Analysis of subsurface
(below the obvious)
 Geophysical Methods
•Remote Sensing
Satellite
High Altitude Multispectral (U2, Fixed wing)

•Airborne
Electromagnetic (induction)
Magnetic
Radiometric

•Ground (as above and )

Ground Penetrating Radar
Seismic
Gravity
DC Resistivity
Induced Polarization
 Remote Sensing

•Linear feature mapping using a variety of

satellite data such as LandSat and Thematic
mapper

•Mapping areas of alteration (limonite

mapping) – Thematic Mapper and Landsat

•Surface mineral and chemical mapping high

and low altitude AVIRIS
 NOTES FOR REMOTE SENSING SLIDES
The Basin Mining District was one site for integrated studies of abandoned mine lands published
in the following Professional Paper:

Nimick, D.A., Church, S.E., and Finger, S.E., eds., in press (2003), Integrated investigations of
environmental effects of historical mining in the Basin and Boulder Mining Districts, Boulder
River Watershed, Jefferson County, Montana: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1652.
(Will be available online at http://pubs.usgs.gov/products/books/profpaper.html)

The linear features slide shows the area of the Luttrell Pit which at the time of the USGS study
was being considered for a mine waste repository. The remote sensing study of the area
included an interpretation and analysis of linear features that cross the proposed repository. No
such feature was found even though there are numerous structures in the general area. The
remote sensing study results were integrated with other studies as discussed in the above
reference.

An example of AVIRIS (Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer;

http://aviris.jpl.nasa.gov) is shown on the two slides from the Leadville, CO, mining district
study. Papers on the studies from this site can be found at: http://speclab.cr.usgs.gov. The
slides show how the data can be used to identify mineral types in mine waste areas. The close-
up shows the high resolution of the data and interpretation in comparison to ground sampling.
The mineral maps have helped officials save roughly $500,000 and about a year's time in
identifying the areas that need attention.
 Linear Feature Mapping
Boulder Watershed, MT

• Four data sets were used as base images for

linear feature mapping

Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM)

India Remote Sensing (IRS) satellite data
Digital Orthophoto Quads (DOQ)
USGS Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
Luttrell Pit Repository Area
REPOSITORY
 Imaging Spectroscopy (AVIRIS)

6
Leachate
pH
2
Airborne Geophysical Surveys

• Radiometrics
- radioactive decay
products
• Total field magnetics
- Magnetization
• Electromagnetics
- electrical conductivity
 NOTES FOR AIRBORNE MAGNETICS

Airborne magnetic and electromagnetic surveys were conducted as a part of the Basin and
Boulder Mining District investigations referenced previously. Slide A shows the total magnetic
field map processed to show shallow magnetic sources. There are many linear trends that are
associated with structures and lithologic contacts that were not shown in geological mapping
of the quadrangles. One important linear feature is just south of the Luttrell repository (see
previous linear feature discussion) and could be a control for bedrock ground water flow.
There were several monitoring wells put in south of the repository partly based on the
geophysical interpretation.

An important conclusion from the airborne surveys were that the data could be used to predict
areas of acid water neutralization (see McCafferty and others, Prof Paper 1625). The acid
neutralization was found to be associated with a mafic mineral assemblage that included
magnetite (slide B). Slide C shows acid neutralizing potential from geological and geophysical
maps. Such maps show the vulnerability of the landscape for location of repositories and area
of possible high acid water generation.
A

Magnetics Example from

Boulder Watershed
Repository
B

ANP minerals with magnetite

Associated
Magnetite
C

Model for acid neutralizing

 Geoelectrical Methods
CONTACTING
• DC (direct current resistivity)
• IP (induced polarization)
INDUCTION
• FEM (frequency domain electromagnetics)
• TEM (time domain electromagnetics)
• CSAMT (CS audiomagnetotellurics)
NATURAL FIELDS
• SP (spontaneous polarization or self potential)
• AMT/MT (magnetutellurics)
 NOTES FOR CONDUCTIVITY SURVEYS
The Fey chart (slide A) shows that high conductivities are associated with more acid waters.
The conductivity of pore-filling waters is one major factor that controls the electrical response
from ground and airborne electrical surveys. In many mining districts alteration produced clays
and massive metallic minerals are sources of high conductivities.

Slide B is from: Morris, B., Shang, J., Howarth, P., and Witherly K. (2002, Application of Remote
Sensing and Airborne Geophysics to Mine Tailings Monitoring, Copper Cliff, Ontario:
Proceedings for the Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Environmental and
Engineering Problems, Las Vegas, 14p). This is a good example of both airborne hyperspectral
imaging shown in a map view panel on the bottom and a helicopter borne survey used to
produce the conductivity depth image (CDI) in cross-section (upper panel). The CDI provides
subsurface information not seen in the surface reflectance data. Red (light areas in gray scale)
shows area of high subsurface conductivity that are associated with acid waters.

Slide C, an example from the eastern US coal mines, is adapted from results of a program
carried out by the Department of Energy National Energy Technology Lab (NETL) and described
in a special issue of Mine Water and the Environment (2003, T.E. Ackman ed. Special Issue on
Airborne Remote Sensing, vol. 22, no. 2). Light area in the CDI cross section show areas of high
conductivity mine waters and areas of acid generating mine waste that possibly are sources of
infiltration to the ground water.
A

Fey chart
B

Conductivity Depth Section

Conductivity depth section from Helicopter EM

survey along line shown in the bottom plan view
map from airborne hyperspectral survey
Pennsylvania Coal Mine example
 NOTES FOR CONDUCTIVITY SURVEYS (cont)
Slide A shows one of several different types of terrain conductivity geophysical instruments that
can be used to map very shallow (few meters as is the case for this system) to deep (10s of
meters). This system was used to map shallow subsurface contamination at the Buckeye
Meadows site (slide B) as part of the Basin and Boulder Mining District studies discussed
previously. (McDougal, R.R., and Smith, B.D., 2000)

Slide C shows an areal photograph of the site where lighter areas are high reflectance areas and
circles show sites of shallow hand cores and ground water sampling wells (BM). An apparent
conductivity map is shown in slide D where the high conductivities shown in the warmer colors
(lighter). The ground survey shows the plume of high TDS waters in much more detail than the
limited bore hole sampling. The plume has no surface expression other than the tailings area.
The ground geophysical anomalies were confirmed by shallow drilling. The tailings were dug up
and moved to the Luttrell repository discussed previously.

Borehole logging provides important supplemental information to ground subsurface mapping

surveys. An example from a geoprobe electrical resistivity measurement is shown in slides E and
F. The geoprobe resistivity depth profile (slide F) shows the correlation of subsurface logging and
surface geophysical surveys. The study area is located in Oklahoma in a mine waste study of a
residential area. (POST REMEDIATION CHARACTERIZATION OF LNAPL USING DIRECT
PUSH ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY TOMOGRAPHY GRAHAM, Ivy, HALIHAN, Todd, PAXTON,
Stanley T., and RILEY, Matthew, School of Geology, Oklahoma State Univ, 105 Noble Research
Center, Stillwater, OK 74078; GSA abstract, 2003 annual meeting) In general both induction
conductivity and resistivity borehole measurements can provide information about ground water
electrical properties both in the vadose zone and below the water table.
 Geonics EM-31
A

One of several different types of terrain conductivity systems

B

Buckeye Separator Tailings, Boulder Mining District, MT

Buckeye tailings
C

Buckeye meadows site

EM31 conductivity map VMD
3m
E
GEOPROBE SHALLOW
PENETROMETER
(University of Oklahoma)

GEOPROBE SHALLOW PENETROMETER

F Geoprobe resistivity depth
sections
 Other GP Methods

•Seismic Reflection and Refraction

velocity contrasts needed

•Ground Penetrating Radar need

very resistive ground but generally
not deep (few feet)
 Geophysics TRY IT!
• Cost effective for subsurface mapping at site and
watershed scale (note: no access issue in
airborne)

• Integration with geology and geochemistry…NOT

a black box universal solution

• Avoid “nothing else works … try geophysics”

…design application to physical property

• Match the method to the site and problem…do

not use EM under power lines
 SELECTED REFERENCES

Open-file Report 03-210 Determining the Toxicity Potential of Mine-Waste Piles

http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2003/ofr-03-210/

Campbell, D.L., 2000, Annotated bibliography of geophysical methods for characterizing mine
waste, late-1994 through early 2000: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 00-428, which
can be accessed at:
http://crustal.usgs.gov/minewaste/geophysics_mine_pubs.html (Accessed June 2000)

McDougal, R.R., and Smith, B.D., 2000, Ground geophysical study of the Buckeye Mine tailings,
Boulder watershed, Montana, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 00-0371, 55p.

GENERAL GEOPHYSICS SURVEYS AND PRINCIPLES

Sharma, P.Y., 1997 (reprinted 2002), Environmental and engineering geophysics, Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, England, 508p.

Kearey, P., Brooks, M., and Hill, I, 2002, An introduction to geophysical exploration, Blackwell Science.