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Objectives
• Identify the unique vocabulary associated with
thermodynamics through the precise definition of
basic concepts to form a sound foundation for the
development of the principles of thermodynamics.
• Review the metric SI and the English unit systems.
• Explain the basic concepts of thermodynamics such
as system, state, state postulate, equilibrium,
process, and cycle.
• Review concepts of temperature, temperature scales,
pressure, and absolute and gage pressure.
• Introduce an intuitive systematic problem-solving
technique.
2
THERMODYNAMICS AND ENERGY
Thermodynamics: The science of
energy.
Energy: The ability to cause changes.
The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words therme (heat) and
dynamis (power).
Conservation of energy principle:
During an interaction, energy can change
from one form to another but the total
amount of energy remains constant.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
Energy cannot be created
The first law asserts that energy is a or destroyed; it can only
thermodynamic property. change forms3 (the first law).
The second law of thermodynamics:
It asserts that energy has quality as
well as quantity, and actual processes
occur in the direction of decreasing
quality of energy.
Classical thermodynamics: A
macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require
a knowledge of the behavior of
individual particles. Conservation of energy
principle for the human body.
It provides a direct and easy way to the
solution of engineering problems and it
is used in this text.
Statistical thermodynamics: A
microscopic approach, based on the
average behavior of large groups of
individual particles.
It is used in this text only in the
supporting role.
Heat flows in the direction of
4
decreasing temperature.
Application Areas of Thermodynamics
5
IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily.
6
Some SI and English Units
A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weigh only 10
kgf on the moon.
To be dimensionally
homogeneous, all the
Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and terms in an equation
are unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) must have the same unit.
can be inserted conveniently into any calculation to
properly convert units. 9
SYSTEMS AND CONTROL VOLUMES
System: A quantity of matter or a region
in space chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
Boundary: The real or imaginary surface
that separates the system from its
surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
Systems may be considered to be closed
or open.
• Closed system
(Control mass):
A fixed amount
of mass, and no
mass can cross
its boundary.
10
Open system (control volume): A properly
selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves
mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or
nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the
boundary of a control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control
volume. It can be real or imaginary.
An open system (a
control volume) with one 11
Density is
mass per unit
volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
14
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
Thermodynamics deals with
equilibrium states.
Equilibrium: A state of balance.
In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving
forces) within the system.
Thermal equilibrium: If the
temperature is the same throughout
the entire system.
Mechanical equilibrium: If there is A system at two different states.
no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
Phase equilibrium: If a system
involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stays there.
Chemical equilibrium: If the
chemical composition of a system
does not change with time, that is,
no chemical reactions occur.
17
Process diagrams plotted by
employing thermodynamic properties
as coordinates are very useful in
visualizing the processes.
Some common properties that are
used as coordinates are temperature
T, pressure P, and volume V (or
specific volume v).
The prefix iso- is often used to
designate a process for which a
particularproperty remains constant.
Isothermal process: A process
during which the temperature T
remains constant.
Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific The P-V diagram of a compression
volume v remains constant. process.
Cycle: A process during which the
initial and final states are identical. 18
The Steady-Flow Process
The term steady implies no
change with time. The
opposite of steady is
unsteady, or transient.
A large number of During a steady-
engineering devices operate flow process, fluid
for long periods of time properties within
under the same conditions, the control
and they are classified as volume may
steady-flow devices. change with
Steady-flow process: A position but not
process during which a fluid with time.
flows through a control
volume steadily.
Steady-flow conditions can
be closely approximated by
devices that are intended for
continuous operation such
as turbines, pumps, boilers,
condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants Under steady-flow conditions,
19
the mass
or refrigeration systems. and energy contents of a control volume
remain constant.
TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
The zeroth law of thermodynamics: If two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
By replacing the third body with a thermometer, the zeroth law can
be restated as two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the
same temperature reading even if they are not in contact.
Comparison of
magnitudes of
various
temperature
units.
• The reference temperature in the original Kelvin scale was the ice point,
273.15 K, which is the temperature at which water freezes (or ice melts).
• The reference point was changed to a much more precisely reproducible
point, the triple point of water (the state at which all three phases
22
of water
coexist in equilibrium), which is assigned the value 273.16 K.
PRESSURE
68 kg 136 kg
Pressure: A normal force exerted
by a fluid per unit area
Afeet=300cm2
Some
basic
pressure 23
gages.
Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.
Throughout
this text, the
pressure P
will denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.
24
Variation of Pressure with Depth
When the variation of density
with elevation is known
Pressure in a liquid
at rest increases
linearly with
distance from the
free surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on
a horizontal plane in
a given fluid
regardless of
geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by
the same fluid.
26
Pascal’s law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.
law.
The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and
moderate pressure differences. A manometer
contains one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil.
Measuring the
pressure drop across
a flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.
The basic
manometer.
to measure pressure.
THE BAROMETER AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
• Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
• A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as
the pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0°C (Hg =
13,595 kg/m3) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).
These processes
Transferring cannot occur
heat to a wire even though they
will not are not in violation
generate
of the first law.
electricity. 37
Processes occur in a
certain direction, and not
in the reverse direction.
A source
supplies
energy in the
Bodies with relatively large thermal form of heat,
masses can be modeled as thermal and a sink
energy reservoirs. absorbs it.
41
Thermal efficiency
Schematic of
a heat engine.
Irreversibilities
(a) Heat
transfer
through a
temperature
difference is
irreversible, Irreversible
and (b) the compression
reverse and
process is expansion 53
impossible. processes.
Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
• Internally reversible process: If no irreversibilities occur within the boundaries of
the system during the process.
• Externally reversible: If no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundaries.
• Totally reversible process: It involves no irreversibilities within the system or its
surroundings.
• A totally reversible process involves no heat transfer through a finite temperature
difference, no nonquasi-equilibrium changes, and no friction or other dissipative
effects.
A reversible process
involves no internal and Totally and internally reversible heat
54
external irreversibilities. transfer processes.
THE CARNOT
CYCLE
Execution of
the Carnot
cycle in a
closed
system.
The Carnot
heat engine
is the most
efficient of
all heat
engines
operating
between the
same high-
and low- No heat engine can have a higher
temperature efficiency than a reversible heat engine
reservoirs. operating between the same high- and
low-temperature reservoirs.
Any heat Carnot heat
engine engine
60
The Quality of Energy
Can we use
C unit for
temperature
The higher the temperature
here?
of the thermal energy, the
higher its quality.
67
PHASES OF A PURE SUBSTANCE
The molecules
in a solid are
kept at their
positions by the
large springlike
inter-molecular
forces.
In a solid, the
attractive and
repulsive forces
between the
molecules tend
to maintain them
at relatively
constant
distances from
each other.
68
PHASE-CHANGE PROCESSES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
At 1 atm pressure
and 100°C, water
exists as a liquid
that is ready to
vaporize
(saturated liquid). 69
Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense.
Saturated liquid–vapor mixture: The state at which the liquid and vapor
phases coexist in equilibrium.
Superheated vapor: A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e., not a
saturated vapor).
The liquid–vapor
saturation curve
of a pure
substance
(numerical
values are for 72
water).
Latent heat: The amount of energy
absorbed or released during a phase-
change process.
Latent heat of fusion: The amount of
energy absorbed during melting. It is
equivalent to the amount of energy
released during freezing.
Latent heat of vaporization: The
amount of energy absorbed during
vaporization and it is equivalent to the
energy released during condensation.
The magnitudes of the latent heats
depend on the temperature or pressure
at which the phase change occurs.
At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of
fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the
latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5
kJ/kg.
The atmospheric pressure, and thus the
boiling temperature of water, decreases
with elevation. 73
Some Consequences of Tsat
and Psat Dependence
The variation of
the temperature
of fruits and
vegetables with
pressure during
vacuum cooling
from 25°C to 0°C.
T-v diagram of
constant-pressure
phase-change
processes of a pure
substance at various
pressures
(numerical
75
values
are for water).
saturated liquid line
saturated vapor line
compressed liquid region
superheated vapor region
saturated liquid–vapor
mixture region (wet region)
At supercritical
Critical point: The point
pressures (P > Pcr),
at which the saturated
there is no distinct
liquid and saturated vapor
phase-change 76
states are identical.
(boiling) process.
77
Extending the For water,
Diagrams to Include Ttp = 0.01°C
Ptp = 0.6117 kPa
the Solid Phase
At triple-point pressure
and temperature, a
substance exists in three
phases in equilibrium.
78
Sublimation: Phase Diagram
Passing from the
solid phase directly
into the vapor phase.
At low pressures
(below the triple-point
value), solids
evaporate without
P-T diagram of pure substances.
melting first
(sublimation). 79
The P-v-T surfaces present a great deal of information at once, but in a
thermodynamic analysis it is more convenient to work with two-dimensional
diagrams, such as the P-v and T-v diagrams.
80
PROPERTY TABLES
For most substances, the relationships among thermodynamic properties are too
complex to be expressed by simple equations.
Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of tables.
Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but others cannot and are
calculated by using the relations between them and measurable properties.
The results of these measurements and calculations are presented in tables in a
convenient format.
The
combination
u + Pv is
frequently
encountered
in the analysis The product pressure
81
of control volume has energy units.
volumes.
Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States
Table A–4: Saturation properties of water under temperature.
Table A–5: Saturation properties of water under pressure.
82
Examples:
Saturated liquid
and saturated
vapor states of
water on T-v and
P-v diagrams.
83
Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
Quality, x : The ratio of the mass of vapor to the total mass of the mixture.
Quality is between 0 and 1 0: sat. liquid, 1: sat. vapor.
The properties of the saturated liquid are the same whether it exists alone or in
a mixture with saturated vapor.
Temperature and
pressure are dependent
properties for a mixture.
The relative
amounts of
liquid and
vapor phases
in a saturated
mixture are A two-phase system can be
specified by treated as a homogeneous
84
85
Examples: Saturated liquid-vapor
mixture states on T-v and P-v diagrams.
86
In the region to the right of the Superheated Vapor
saturated vapor line and at
temperatures above the critical Compared to saturated vapor,
point temperature, a substance superheated vapor is characterized by
exists as superheated vapor.
In this region, temperature and
pressure are independent
properties.
At a specified
P, superheated
vapor exists at
a higher h than
the saturated
vapor.
A partial
listing of 87
Table A–6.
The compressed liquid properties Compressed Liquid
depend on temperature much more Compressed liquid is characterized by
strongly than they do on pressure.
y v, u, or h
A compressed liquid
may be approximated
as a saturated liquid at
the given temperature.
88
Reference State and Reference Values
The values of u, h, and s cannot be measured directly, and they are calculated from
measurable properties using the relations between properties.
However, those relations give the changes in properties, not the values of properties at
specified states.
Therefore, we need to choose a convenient reference state and assign a value of zero
for a convenient property or properties at that state.
The reference state for water is 0.01°C and for R-134a is -40°C in tables.
Some properties may have negative values as a result of the reference state chosen.
Sometimes different tables list different values for some properties at the same state as
a result of using a different reference state.
However, In thermodynamics we are concerned with the changes in properties, and the
reference state chosen is of no consequence in calculations.
89
THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION OF STATE
Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature,
and specific volume of a substance.
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas
phase is the ideal-gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-v-T
behavior of a gas quite accurately within some properly selected region.
Ideal gas equation
of state
R: gas constant
M: molar mass (kg/kmol)
Ru: universal gas constant
Different substances
90
have different
gas constants.
Mass = Molar mass Mole number Ideal gas equation at two
states for a fixed mass
Various expressions
of ideal gas equation
93
Reduced Reduced
pressure temperature
Pseudo-reduced Z can also be determined from
specific volume a knowledge of PR and vR.
94
The constants are given in Table 3–4. This equation can handle substances
at densities up to about 2.5 cr.
T
There are some problems:
(1) Compressor
(2) turbine
2 3
1 4
s
9-1-2. Rankine cycle
Trained as a civil engineer, William Rankine (1820-
1872)was appointed to the chairman of civil
engineering and mechanics at Glasgow in 1855. He
worked on heat, and attempted to derive Sadi Carnot's
law from his own hypothesis. He was elected a Fellow
of the Royal Society in 1853. Among his most
important works are Manual of Applied Mechanics
(1858), Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime
Movers (1859) .
9-1-3. The efficiency of Rankine cycle
qabsorb= h2 - h1
qexhaust= h3 – h4
qabsorb qexhaust
qabsorb
h2 h1 (h3 h4 )
h2 h1
h2 h1 h3 h4 )
h2 h1
Usually, The properties: p1, t1 and p2 are available for a power
plant,then:
h1:
From p1, t1 , get h1 , s1
Reheater
Steam turbine
boiler
qexhaust h2 h3
w qin qexhaust
w
qin
(h1 h4 ) (hn hm ) (h2 h3 )
(hm h1 ) (h1 hn )
The properties: p1, t1 , pm , tn (equals t1 usually), p2 are available for a reheat
power plant,then:
h1:
From p1, t1 , get h1 , s1
Steam turbine
a
boiler Stea
m 2
6
condense
5
r
3
Steam turbine
b
a
boiler
2
7
5 condense
6 r
3
1
The more stages of
bleeding steam, the higher
1 efficiency the cycle has
7
1
6
2
4 5
1 1 2
3 2
s
9-4-2 The efficiency of regenerative Cycle
T 1
qin h1 h6
1 a
1 qexhaust (h2 h3 )(1 1 2 )
6
b
5 2 w qin qexhaust
4 1 1 2 qin qexhaust
3 2 qin
s
The enthalpy of each point
6 1
b
5 2 h2: From p2 , get s2’ , s3”
h2’ , h2”
4 1 1 2
3 2
s2 s1 xs2 "(1 x)s2 '
s So, x can be known
h2 xh2 "(1 x)h2 '
T 1
h3: From p2 , get h2’ , h3= h2’
1 a
s
1 and 2
As to the 1st stage heater
1 ha
h6 h5
1 1
h6 h5 (1 1 ) 1ha
h6 h5
1
ha h5
As to the 2nd stage heater
2 hb
h5 h4
1 1 1 1 - 2
h5 (1 1 ) h4 (1 1 2 ) 2 hb
(1 1 )( h5 h4 )
2
hb h4
9-5 Other Steam Power Cycle
9-5-1 Super-critical Cycle
9-5-2 The Combined Gas-Vapor Power Cycle
9-5-2 Binary-vapor Cycle
THANK YOU..
128
VAPOR AND COMBINED
POWER CYCLES
Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for
which the working fluid remains a gas throughout the
entire cycle.
• Analyze vapor power cycles in which the working fluid
is alternately vaporized and condensed.
• Analyze power generation coupled with process
heating called cogeneration.
• Investigate ways to modify the basic Rankine vapor
power cycle to increase the cycle thermal efficiency.
• Analyze the reheat and regenerative vapor power
cycles.
• Analyze power cycles that consist of two separate
cycles known as combined cycles and binary cycles.
130
THE CARNOT VAPOR CYCLE
The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between two specified temperature
limits but it is not a suitable model for power cycles. Because:
Process 1-2 Limiting the heat transfer processes to two-phase systems severely limits the
maximum temperature that can be used in the cycle (374°C for water)
Process 2-3 The turbine cannot handle steam with a high moisture content because of the
impingement of liquid droplets on the turbine blades causing erosion and wear.
Process 4-1 It is not practical to design a compressor that handles two phases.
The cycle in (b) is not suitable since it requires isentropic compression to
extremely high pressures and isothermal heat transfer at variable pressures.
132
(a) Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine 134
cycle.
(b) The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle.
HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE
RANKINE CYCLE?
The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency
of a power cycle is the same: Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the average
temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
138
The single reheat in a modern power
plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5% by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam.
The average temperature during the
reheat process can be increased by
increasing the number of expansion and
reheat stages. As the number of stages is
increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal
process at the maximum temperature.
The use of more than two reheat stages
is not practical. The theoretical
improvement in efficiency from the
second reheat is about half of that which The average temperature at
results from a single reheat. which heat is transferred during
The reheat temperatures are very close reheating increases as the
or equal to the turbine inlet temperature. number of reheat stages is
increased.
The optimum reheat pressure is about
one-fourth of the maximum cycle 139
pressure.
THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
Heat is transferred to the working fluid
during process 2-2 at a relatively low
temperature. This lowers the average
heat-addition temperature and thus the
cycle efficiency.
In steam power plants, steam is extracted
from the turbine at various points. This
steam, which could have produced more
work by expanding further in the turbine, is
used to heat the feedwater instead. The
device where the feedwater is heated by
regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).
The first part of the heat-addition A feedwater heater is basically a heat
process in the boiler takes place at exchanger where heat is transferred from
relatively low temperatures. the steam to the feedwater either by
mixing the two fluid streams (open
feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
(closed feedwater heaters).
140
Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater
heater is basically a mixing chamber,
where the steam extracted from the
turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting
the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure.
141
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with an open feedwater heater.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is
the closed feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the
extracted steam to the feedwater without any mixing taking place. The two
streams now can be at different pressures, since they do not mix.
142
The ideal regenerative Rankine cycle with a closed feedwater heater.
The closed feedwater heaters are more complex because of the internal tubing
network, and thus they are more expensive. Heat transfer in closed feedwater
heaters is less effective since the two streams are not allowed to be in direct contact.
However, closed feedwater heaters do not require a separate pump for each heater
since the extracted steam and the feedwater can be at different pressures.
Open feedwater
A steam power plant with one open heaters are simple
and three closed feedwater heaters. and inexpensive
and have good
heat transfer
characteristics. For
each heater,
however, a pump is
required to handle
the feedwater.
Steady-flow, one-
inlet, one-exit
Stream exergy
147
COMBINED GAS–VAPOR POWER CYCLES
• The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather
innovative modifications to conventional power plants.
• A popular modification involves a gas power cycle topping a vapor power cycle,
which is called the combined gas–vapor cycle, or just the combined cycle.
• The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-turbine (Brayton) cycle topping
a steam-turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher thermal efficiency than
either of the cycles executed individually.
• It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable
characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high-
temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the bottoming cycle such as
a steam power cycle. The result is a combined gas–steam cycle.
• Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined gas–
steam cycle economically very attractive.
• The combined cycle increases the efficiency without increasing the initial cost
greatly. Consequently, many new power plants operate on combined cycles, and
many more existing steam- or gas-turbine plants are being converted to
combined-cycle power plants.
• Thermal efficiencies over 50% are reported.
148
Combined gas–steam power plant. 149
THANK YOU..
150
UNIT - IV
Ideal and Real Gases
Equations of State
The Ideal Gas
V T At fixed P
Avogadro’s Law
At the same P and T equal Volumes of gas
contain the same # of molecules
Na = 2. 73X1026 molecules/lb mole
Internet Lesson on Ideal Gas
Behavior
Experimental
instructions
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/Piston/ Hi, I am
Boyle
Problems with solutions
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/GasLaw/WS-Ideal.html
Ideal Equation of State
Construction
Step 1
T2
T1
P1V1 P2V x
Step 2
P1 x
V V2
T1 T2
P2 Combining
P1V1 P2V2
Vx V2 T1 T2
V1
Boyle & Charles laws
Boyle Charles
http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/GasLaw/KMT-Gas-Laws.html
Boyle & Charles laws
1
V T P
V
P T
nRT
P http://home.a-city.de/walter.fendt/phe/gaslaw.htm
Vt
nk RT
Pk
Vt
Partial Pressure
Pk nk
yk
P p
k
P n
P is the partial pressure of component k,
k
T
1
T
1
and by definition
n ,n , nk
1 2
…, n
k
Nc
P
i 1
k P
Density of ideal gas
nRT m P
P
Vt M wVt RT
Real gas
RT
PVM
Z
RT
Z is the ratio of the “real molar volume”
over the “ideal molar volume” PVM RT Z
Z
of a substance measured at the same RT
PVM id 1
pressure and temperature.
Compressibility Factor Charts
Z Tr
1
Pr
The Principle of
Corresponding States
“All fluids when compared at
the same reduced temperature
and reduced pressure, have
approximately the same
compressibility factor, and all
deviate from ideal gas behavior
to about the same degree”
Reduced Temperature:
Tr T / Tc
Typical Reduced Parameters
Reduced Pressure:
Pr P / Pc
Reduced Molar Volume:
V r VM / VM c
Reduced Parameters
Following the POC only one compressibility factor chart can be used
to determine volumetric properties of any pure fluid by using its
reduced properties. The shape of this chart is in general.
Corresponding States Correlations &
Models
P
Ppr
Pseudoreduced Temperature Ppc
T
Tpr
Tpc
Pseudocritical Properties of Natural
Gases
If only the specific gravity and Mw of of the gases is known then
charts are available to estimate these pseudocritical properties
(McCain figure 3-10 ).
Pseudocritical Properties of Natural
Gases
Naturally the degree of accuracy is reduced substantially. We well see
methods when compositional information is available, in this case:
Nc
Tpc yiTci
Nc
Ppc yi Pci
i 1 i 1
Pseudocritical Properties of Natural
Gases
Once Z is evaluated you can find the gas density as
g
M
V
lbm / ft 3
Z-factor
chart for
low reduced
pressures
182
Objectives
183
THE MAXWELL RELATIONS
The equations that relate the partial derivatives of properties P, v, T, and s
of a simple compressible system to each other are called the Maxwell
relations. They are obtained from the four Gibbs equations by exploiting the
exactness of the differentials of thermodynamic properties.
Helmholtz function
Gibbs function
186
Clapeyron
equation
At low pressures
Treating vapor as
an ideal gas The Clapeyron–Clausius
equation can be used to
Substituting these equations into the Clapeyron determine the variation of
equation saturation pressure with
temperature.
It can also be used in the
solid–vapor region by
replacing hfg by hig (the
enthalpy of sublimation) of
the substance.
Integrating between two saturation states
Clapeyron–
Clausius equation
189
GENERAL RELATIONS FOR du, dh, ds, cv,
AND cp
• The state postulate established that the state of a simple compressible system is
completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
• Therefore, we should be able to calculate all the properties of a system such as
internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy at any state once two independent,
intensive properties are available.
• The calculation of these properties from measurable ones depends on the
availability of simple and accurate relations between the two groups.
• In this section we develop general relations for changes in internal energy,
enthalpy, and entropy in terms of pressure, specific volume, temperature, and
specific heats alone.
• We also develop some general relations involving specific heats.
• The relations developed will enable us to determine the changes in these
properties.
• The property values at specified states can be determined only190 after the selection
191
Internal
Energy
Change
s
192
The enthalpy to be a function of T and P, that is, h=h(T, Enthalpy
P),
and take its total differential: Changes
193
194
Entropy Changes
195
Specific Heats cv and cp
196
197
Mayer
relation 198
Mayer
relation
Conclusions from Mayer relation:
1. The right hand side of the equation is
always greater than or equal to zero.
Therefore, we conclude that
202
Using a superscript asterisk (*) to denote an ideal-gas state, we can express
the enthalpy change of a real gas during process 1-2 as
203
Enthalpy
departure
factor
The values of Zh are presented in graphical form as a function of PR
(reduced pressure) and TR (reduced temperature) in the generalized
enthalpy departure chart.
Zh is used to determine the deviation of the enthalpy of a gas at a
given P and T from the enthalpy of an ideal gas at the same T.
For a real gas
during a
process 1-2
from ideal gas tables
204
Entropy Changes of Real Gases
General relation for ds
206
EXAMPLE 12-11
Thermodynamics Analysis with Non-Ideal Gas Properties
ANS:
Wb,in = 105.1 kJ/kg
qout = 326.4 kJ/kg
207
THANK YOU..
208
209
Objectives
• Develop rules for determining nonreacting gas
mixture properties from knowledge of mixture
composition and the properties of the individual
components.
• Define the quantities used to describe the
composition of a mixture, such as mass fraction,
mole fraction, and volume fraction.
• Predict the P-v-T behavior of gas mixtures based
on Dalton’s law of additive pressures and
Amagat’s law of additive volumes.
• Apply the rules for determining mixture properties
210
Mass
fraction
The number of moles of a nonreacting
mixture is equal to the sum of the Mole 211
number of moles of its components. fraction
Apparent (or average) molar mass M The sum of the mass and
mole fractions of a mixture
is equal to 1.
Gas constant
The real gases approximate this behavior closely when they are
at a low pressure or high temperature relative to their critical-point
values.
The intensive
properties of
a mixture are
determined by
weighted
averaging.
Properties per unit mass involve mass fractions (mfi) and properties
per unit mole involve mole fractions (yi).
The relations are exact for ideal-gas mixtures, and approximate for
real-gas mixtures. 226
Ideal-Gas Mixtures
Gibbs–Dalton law: Under the ideal-gas
approximation, the properties of a gas are
not influenced by the presence of other
gases, and each gas component in the
mixture behaves as if it exists alone at
the mixture temperature Tm and mixture
volume Vm.
Also, the h, u, cv, and cp of an ideal gas
depend on temperature only and are
independent of the pressure or the
volume of the ideal-gas mixture.
Partial pressures (not
the mixture pressure)
are used in the
evaluation of entropy
changes of ideal-gas
mixtures.
227
228
229
230
THANK YOU..
231
UNIT - V
PSYCHROMETRY
Psychrometrics
It involves determination of thermodynamic properties of gas-
vapor mixtures.
The most common applications are associated with the air-
water vapor system.
Properties of dry air
Composition of air
composition % by volume
Nitrogen 78.08400
Oxygen 20.94760
Argon 0.934000
Carbon dioxide 0.031400
Neon 0.001818
Helium 0.000524
Others (methane, sulfur 0.000658
dioxide, hydrogen, krypton และ
xenon)
Properties of dry air
PwV
W
mw
RwT Pw Ra
ma PaV Pa Rw
P = Pw + Pa
Ra T R = gas constant
P = total pressure
V = volume
T = absolute temperature
W = humidity ratio
Pw
W 0.622
P Pw Subscripts: w is water vapor,
a is dry air
Relative Humidity
1
V’m = 0.082Ta 22.4 W / 18
29
Wet bulb temperature
pw =
Pwb
PB Pwb Ta Tw
where pw = partial pressure 0.722
1555.of56water Tw
vapor
pB = total pressure = barometric pressure
pwb = saturation pressure of water vapor
at wet bulb temp.
Ta = dry bulb temp.
Tw = wet bulb temp.
Example
Absolute Temperature
Dry-bulb temperature
Wet-bulb temperature
Dew-point temperature
Psychrometric Charts
Q m c p t
Example
Dehumidification by Cooling
Example
Adiabatic mixing
m h Q
m h
Governing equation in out
Psychrometric
charts
THANK YOU..
294