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flembri@pha.jhu.edu, ioana@cs.jhu.edu
• Instrumentation
• Applications
1. Atomic Structure
Missing Electron == ?
Extra Electron == ?
Electrons
• Orbiting in shells
Electron Binding Energy
• Atom’s ground state – lowest energy
configuration
• Basic principle:
bound energy < unbound energy + electron energy
• Binding energy is difference
• Binding energy of hydrogen electron: 13.6 eV
• Bremsstrahlung x-rays
–Electron “grazes" nucleus, slows down
–Energy loss generates x-ray (primary
source of x-rays from an x-ray tube)
X-Ray Spectrum
EM Radiation Interactions w/ matter
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton scattering
Photoelectric effect
• Atom completely absorbs incident photon Iodine
• All energy is transferred Energy levels
K -33.2keV
• Atom produces L -4.3keV
- characteristic radiation, and/or
M -0.6keV
- energetic electron(s)
• Characteristic radiation might be
- x-ray
- Other light (very important)
KLM
Example
• Photon with energy 40keV enters
• Photoelectron from K-shell with
energy (40-33.2)=6.8keV exits
• Electron from M- to K-shell
• Characteristic radiation at (33.2-0.6)=
31.6KeV in a random direction.
• The Atom now has positive charge
• What if the energy is higher/lower?
Compton Scattering
Photon collides with outer-shell electron
• Photon is not absorbed, but it loses energy and it changes
direction (angle θ)
• Compton effect
– Undesirable
– How can we control the angle?
• Important concepts
– Attenuation
– Dose
Attenuation
• The process describing the loss of strength of a beam of
electromagnetic radiation.
• Tissue-dependent attenuation is the primary mechanism
behind contrast in radiology.
Beam Strength
– Photon count = number of
photons in the burst
– Energy flow = how much
energy the bust is carrying
• In terms of intensity:
I = I0 e -μ Δ x
Δx = 20cm
N0 = 1,000,000,000,000
Exercise 1:
Eγ = 20 KeV
N = 2,000
ΔE = 999,999,998,000 * 20 keV = 2e13 keV
Exercise 2:
Eγ = 100 KeV
N = 33,000,000,000
ΔE = 967,000,000,000 * 100 keV = 9.6e13 keV
EM Radiation Dose
• How many photons? → fluence
• How much energy? → energy fluence
• What does radiation do to matter? → dose
Exposure
= the creation of ions
1 C/kg = 3876 R
Dose
As EM radiation passes through a material, it
deposits energy into it by the photoelectric effect
and Compton scattering.
• How much energy is deposited into material?
• Dose D, the energy deposited per unit volume
• SI unit: Gray (Gy)
1 Gy = 1 J/kg (energy per mass)
• Common unit: rad
1 Gy = 100 rads
1 R of exposure yields 1 rad of absorbed dose in
soft tissue.
So did we kill our test subject?
• 2 x 1013 keV = 3.2 x 10-3 J
– Mass = 80 kg
– 3.2e-3 J / 80 kg = 0.00004 rads = 0.04 mRad
• Dose equivalent H
H=D*Q
• Q = quality factor,
– Q ≈ 1 for x-rays, gamma rays, electrons, beta,
– Q ≈ 10 for neutrons and protons,
– Q ≈ 20 for alpha particles.
• Since Q ≈ 1, H = D
• SI unit, Sievert (Sv). More common, rems
Effective Dose
= The sum of dose equivalents to different organs or
body tissues, weighted to produce a value
proportional to risk (the body is not irradiated
uniformly)
• Cataracts – induced
when a dose
exceeding 500 rems is
delivered to the lens of
the eye. Radiation
induced cataracts may
take months or years
to appear.
• Extremely unlikely to
receive a substantial
dose to the eye
working with todays
units.
Delayed Effects
• chest x-rays
• mammography
• dental x-rays
• fluoroscopy
• angiography
• computed tomography
The three standard orientations of projection (slice, tomographic)
images
Axial,
Transaxial, Coronal
Transverse Frontal Sagittal
• Inherent Filtration
– Within anode
– Glass housing
• Added Filtration
– Aluminum
– Copper/Aluminum
– Measured in mm Al/Eq
Restriction
• Air
– Does not absorb x-ray
– “opposite” type of contrast
– By Inflating the lungs, air provides contrast for lung
tissues
4. Applications
X-ray Shoe Fitting Device
In the late 1940's and early 1950's, the shoe-fitting x-ray unit was a
common shoe store sales promotion device and nearly all stores had
one. It was estimated that there were 10,000 of these devices in use.
This particular shoe-fitting x-ray unit was produced by the dominant
company in the field, the Adrian X-Ray Company of Milwaukee WI, now
defunct. Brooks Stevens, a noted industrial designer whose works
included the Milwaukee Road Olympian train and an Oscar Meyer
Wienermobile, designed this machine.
The primary component of a shoe-fitting x-ray unit was the fluoroscope which
consisted essentially of an x-ray tube mounted near the floor and wholly or
partially enclosed in a shielded box and a fluorescent screen. The x-rays
penetrated the shoes and feet and then struck the fluorescent screen. This
resulted in an image of the feet within the shoes. The fluorescent image was
reflected to three viewing ports at the top of the cabinet, where the customer, the
salesperson, and a third person (mom) could view the image at the same time.
The radiation hazards associated with shoe fitting x-ray units were recognized as
early as 1950. The machines were often out of adjustment and were constructed
so radiation leaked into the surrounding area.
Chest X-Ray
Dental X-Rays
Angiogram
Mammography
Thank you