SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENTOF

NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS
CHARACTERSTICS AND HUMAN
IMPACTS (BIOMES- FORESTS ,
MARINE
UNIT MATRIX
• SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENTOF NATURAL ENVIRONMENTS
CHARACTERSTICS AND HUMAN IMPACTS (BIOMES- FORESTS ,
MARINE )
• KC- Relationships RC- Causality, Management and Intervention,
Processes.
• GLOBAL CONTEXT- Identities and Relationships
• SOI- Human Intervention in Management of Processes may be a
Cause leading to changes in Identities and Relationships
Classifying different environments:
ecosystems and biome
• An ecosystem is a group of living organisms interacting with the non-living
parts of an environment. Ecosystems can vary in size, e.g. a single
hedgerow or a whole rainforest.
• Biomes are defined as "the world's major communities, classified
according to the predominant vegetation and characterized by
adaptations of organisms to that particular environment" (Campbell
1996).
• The importance of biomes cannot be overestimated. Biomes have changed
and moved many times during the history of life on Earth
• . More recently, human activities have drastically altered these
communities. Thus, conservation and preservation of biomes should be a
major concern to all..
•:
Types

Fresh
Tundra desert
water

Grass
Marine forests
lands
The freshwater biome
• Freshwater is defined as having a low salt concentration — usually
less than 1%.
• Plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to the low salt
content and would not be able to survive in areas of high salt
concentration (i.e., ocean).
• There are different types of freshwater regions:
• Ponds and lakes
• Streams and rivers
• Wetlands
Marine
• Marine regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth's surface and
include oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries.
• Marine algae supply much of the world's oxygen supply and take in a
huge amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide.
• The evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the land
• Oceans
• Coral reefs
• Estuaries
Marine – oceans -zones

intertidal pelagic,

abyssal benthic
Marine - oceans
• intertidal zone is where the ocean meets the land — sometimes it is
submerged and at other times exposed, as waves and tides come in
and out.
• Because of this, the communities are constantly changing.
• . At the bottom of the intertidal zone, which is only exposed during
the lowest tides, many invertebrates, fishes, and seaweed can be
found.
• The intertidal zone on sandier shores is not as stratified as in the
rocky areas. Waves keep mud and sand constantly moving, thus very
few algae and plants can establish themselves — the fauna include
worms, clams, predatory crustaceans, crabs, and shorebirds
Marine - oceans
• Pelagic zone includes those waters further from the land, basically the open
ocean. The pelagic zone is generally cold though it is hard to give a general
temperature range since, just like ponds and lakes, there is thermal
stratification with a constant mixing of warm and cold ocean currents.
• The flora in the pelagic zone include surface seaweeds. The fauna include many
species of fish and some mammals, such as whales and dolphins. Many feed on
the abundant plankton.
• benthic zone is the area below the pelagic zone, but does not include the very
deepest parts of the ocean (see abyssal zone below). The bottom of the zone
consists of sand, slit, and/or dead organisms. Here temperature decreases as
depth increases toward the abyssal zone, since light cannot penetrate through
the deeper water. Flora are represented primarily by seaweed while the fauna,
since it is very nutrient-rich, include all sorts of bacteria, fungi, sponges, sea
anemones, worms, sea stars, and fishes
Marine - oceans
• the deep ocean is the abyssal zone. The water in this region is very
cold (around 3° C), highly pressured, high in oxygen content, but low
in nutritional content.
• The abyssal zone supports many species of invertebrates and fishes.
Mid-ocean ridges (spreading zones between tectonic plates), often
with hydrothermal vents, are found in the abyssal zones along the
ocean floors.
• Chemosynthetic bacteria thrive near these vents because of the large
amounts of hydrogen sulfide and other minerals they emit. These
bacteria are thus the start of the food web as they are eaten by
invertebrates and fishes.
Marine –Coral reef
• Coral reefs are widely distributed in warm shallow waters. They can
be found as barriers along continents (e.g., the Great Barrier Reef
off Australia), fringing islands, and atolls.
• Naturally, the dominant organisms in coral reefs are corals. Corals are
interesting since they consist of both algae (zooanthellae) and
tissues of animal polyp.
• Since reef waters tend to be nutritionally poor, corals obtain
nutrients through the algae via photosynthesis and also by
extending tentacles to obtain plankton from the water.
• Besides corals, the fauna include several species of microorganisms,
invertebrates, fishes, sea urchins, octopuses, and sea stars.
How are they formed

• Coral reefs are built by coral polyps as they secrete layers of calcium
carbonate beneath their bodies.
• The corals that build reefs are known as “hard” or “reef-building” corals.
Soft corals, such as sea fans and sea whips, do not produce reefs; they
are flexible organisms that sometimes resemble plants or trees.
• Soft corals do not have stony skeletons and do not always have
zooxanthellae. They can be found in both tropical seas and in cooler,
darker parts of the ocean.
Why Care About Reefs?

• Coral reefs are unlike anything else on the planet. In addition to

providing valuable habitat for fish and other animals, they are
incredibly beautiful, with seemingly infinite structures and growth
forms.
• Food
• Reef fish and other critters are a significant source of protein for up to
a billion people, especially those who live near reefs.
Coral reefs- Biodiversity

• Healthy coral reef ecosystems are like bustling cities, with buildings made
of coral and thousands of marine inhabitants coming and going, interacting
with one another, carrying out their business.
• In this sense, coral reefs are the sea’s metropolises. Coral reefs provide
shelter for nearly one quarter of all known marine species.
• And over the last 240 million years, reefs have evolved into one of the
largest and most complex ecosystems on the planet.
• They are home to more than 4,000 species of fish, 700 species of coral, and
thousands of other species of plants and animals
• Scientists estimate that, in total, more than one million species of plants
and animals are associated with the coral reef ecosystem
Coastal Protection
• Healthy reefs act as natural barriers, protecting coastal cities,
communities, and beaches from pounding ocean waves.
• Nearly 200 million people depend on coral reefs to protect them from
storm surges and waves.
• Without coral reefs, many beaches and buildings would become
vulnerable to wave action and storm damage
• . With more frequent and severe storms predicted as part of climate
change, these coastal protection services will become even more
important.
• In the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004, some coastlines were
spared further damage as a result of healthy reefs.
• In another instance, when coral and sand was mined away in the
Maldives, it cost $10 million (USD) per kilometer to build a wall to
protect the coastline
Tourism

• Healthy reefs support local—and global—economies.

• Through the tourism industry and fisheries, coral reefs generate
billions of dollars—and millions of jobs—in more than 100 countries
around the world.
• Studies show that on average, countries with coral reef industries
derive more than half of their gross national product from them.
Medicine
• Coral reefs are often referred to as the medicine chests of the sea. A
number of creatures found on reefs produce chemical compounds that
have been isolated for human applications—and many more are yet to be
discovered.
• Scientists have developed treatments for cardiovascular diseases, ulcers,
leukaemia, lymphoma, and skin cancer, all from chemicals in reef plants
and animals. Other compounds reduce inflammation, kill viruses, and relax
muscles.
• The beautiful and fragile creatures of our coral reefs have the potential to
make even greater contributions to our lives by providing new cures for
life-threatening diseases.
• More than half of all new cancer drug research focuses on marine
organisms. In addition, coral’s unique skeletal structure has been used to
make our most advanced forms of bone-grafting materials.
Threat
• Coral Bleaching: Most corals have a narrow temperature tolerance. Coral
bleaching occurs when corals become stressed, most often when ocean water
gets too warm.
• Corals will “eject” the symbiotic algae (called zooxanthellae) that live inside
them. When corals lose their algae, they not only lose their color (turning white)
but also their built-in food source
• Scientists have declared three global coral bleaching events: 1998, 2010 and
2014-2017
• Sea level rise: As the planet gets warmer, glaciers melt, causing sea level to rise.
As a result, corals are predicted to end up deeper underwater, receive less
sunlight and grow more slowly.
• The IPCC has found that sea level is rising at a rate of 0.12 inches per year—60
percent faster than the 0.08 inches per year that were predicted in 2007.
threat
• Stronger storms: Another predicted climate change impact is an
increase in the frequency and intensity of tropical storms.
• Hurricanes, cyclones and typhoons gain their speed and strength
from warm ocean temperatures. These storms cause larger and more
powerful waves than normal and can break coral branches and
overturn coral colonies.
• Compounding the problem is the fact that heavy rainfall from a storm
can cause an increase in runoff from land-based sources, leading to
increases in nutrients and sediments.
Ozone depletion
• The depletion of the ozone layer is primarily the result of ozone-
destroying chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) being
released into the atmosphere.
• Heat-trapping gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) exacerbate the
situation by creating atmospheric conditions that lead to ozone loss.
• When the protective ozone is depleted, the intensity and nature of
ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the earth’s surface increases.
• Although corals have a natural sunscreen to protect themselves from
UV radiation, at increased levels, this radiation can damage corals in
shallow waters.
Case study – great barrier reef
Esturaries

• An estuary is an area where a freshwater river or stream meets the

ocean. In estuaries, the salty ocean mixes with a freshwater river,
resulting in brackish water. Brackish water is somewhat salty, but not
as salty as the ocean.
• An estuary may also be called a bay, lagoon, sound, or slough.
• Water continually circulates into and out of an estuary. Tides create
the largest flow of saltwater, while river mouths create the largest
flow of freshwater.
Types of Estuaries

tectonic
coastal plain

Bar built fjord

• Coastal plain estuaries (1) are created when sea levels rise and fill in an
existing river valley. The Chesapeake Bay, on the East Coast of the United
States, is a coastal plain estuary.
• Tectonic activity, the shifting together and rifting apart of the Earth's crust,
creates tectonic estuaries (2). California's San Francisco Bay is a tectonic
• When a lagoon or bay is protected from the ocean by a sandbar or barrier
island, it is called a bar-built estuary (3). The Outer Banks, a series of
narrow barrier islands in North Carolina and Virginia, create sandy, bar-
built estuaries.
• Fjord estuaries (4) are a type of estuary created by glaciers. Fjord estuaries
occur when glaciers carve out a deep, steep valley. Glaciers retreat and the
ocean rushes into fill the narrow, deep depression. Puget Sound is a series
of fjord estuaries in the U.S. state of Washington.
Estuary Ecosystems
• Many plant and animal species thrive in estuaries. The calm waters
provide a safe area for small fish, shellfish, migrating birds and shore
animals. The waters are rich in nutrients such as plankton and
bacteria. Decomposing plant matter, called detritus, provides food for
many species
• the earliest civilizations in the world developed around estuaries. Ur,
in what is now Iraq, developed around 3800 BCE near the estuary of
the Euphrates River where it met the Persian Gulf.

Ur was a sophisticated urban area, with a population of more than

60,000 at its height. Its estuary was the most important port on the
Persian Gulf
Estuaries under threat
• Due to
• Land reclamation
• Over fishing
• pollution
Threats
• Global warming is causing sea levels to rise, threatening coastal population centers.
• Many pesticides and nutrients used in agriculture end up in the coastal waters, resulting
in oxygen depletion that kills marine plants and shellfish.
• . water-sewage treatment plants discharge twice as much oil each year as tanker spills.
Factories and industrial plants discharge sewage and other runoff into the oceans.
• Oil spills pollute the oceans, though U.S
• Air pollution is responsible for almost one-third of the toxic contaminants and
nutrients that enter coastal areas and oceans.
• Invasive species such as poisonous algae, cholera, and countless plants and animals
have entered harbor waters and disrupted the ecological balance.
• The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that 31.4 percent of
fish stocks are either fished to capacity or overfished.
Solutions

• Establish marine parks to protect biodiversity.

• Reduce destructive fishing practices such as trawling.
• Minimize the use of military sonar that can harm or kill whales and
other marine mammals.
• Help fishers to maintain their livelihoods by incorporating
conservation efforts.
• Install measures to reduce the amount of fish caught accidentally.