Evolution

• Evolution means change over time

changes in species over long periods of time
 Theories of Evolution

 A concept that living things came from nonliving

things e.g. Toads come from mud (flies from rotting
animals)
Disproved by Louis Pasteur.
 Theory of Use and Disuse-Lamarck

 Jean Lamarck Theory states that organisms were able to develop

new structures because they needed the structures.
 Size of an organ is determined by how much the organism used.
Exs. Ballet dancers, basketball players
Evolution does not occur in a set direction

 Evolution builds on what already exists, so the more

variety there is, the more there can be in the future.
 However, evolution does not necessitate long-term
progress in a set direction
Why is understanding evolution
important?

 Drug resistance to viruses and bacteria

 Pesticide resistance
 Selective Breeding
 Others
 How do each of these effect you
Phylogenetic

PHYLOGENY
STUDY OF EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIES.
 What is phylogenetic?

Phylogenetic :
Definition:

Relating to the evolutionary development and diversification

of a species or group of organisms, or of a particular feature of an
organism.
There are two way of phylogenetic relationship:
 Analysis
 Tree
 Phylogenetic Analysis steps

1. Choosing the sequence type

2. Alignment of sequence data
3. Search for the best tree
4. Evaluation of tree reproducibility
 Analyses can be based on:

 Differences in DNA-sequence structure

 Distance matrix between sequences
 Restriction data
 Allele data
 Phylogenetic Tree

 The most convenient way of presenting phylogenetic information is using a

phylogenetic tree. In a phylogenetic tree, every node represents a
species. Nodes are labeled, either with species names or the values (also
referred to as states) of their characters, and the edges represent the
genetic connections. It is important to note that there is usually a big
difference between the leaf nodes, that represent real species, and the
internal nodes, that in most cases represent the hypothetical evolutionary
ancestors of the species in the data.

Phylogenetic have two parts

 Rooted
 Un rooted
 Rooted Tree

 Rooted tree are common ancestor.example are given below

Unrooted Tree

 Un rooted tree are non common ancestor. Example are given below
 Relationship between
humans and other primates
1) GENETIC ANALYSIS TELLS US THAT HUMANS ARE
MOST CLOSELY RELATED TO CHIMPANZEES.

2) SOME STUDIES SHOW ONLY A1.2% DIFFERENCE IN

THE DNA BETWEEN CHIMPS AND HUMANS.
 Relationship between
human and Gorillas
1) Next closely related to humans appear
to be gorillas African great family's .
2) Some studies show only a 1.6% gorillas
and humans.
 Evolution of Humans

The evolution of humans being is form monkeys ,

gorillas and chimpanzees in short according to
previous studies humans beings are evolved from
animals.
Mutation
 Mutation

• MUTATION - A CHANGE IN THE DNA THAT MAY OR MAY NOT EFFECTS

INHERITED GENETIC INFROMATION OR CHANGE IN THE NUCLETIDE
SEQUENCE OF DNA.
• MUTATION IS A CHANGE IN DNA, THE HEREDITARY MATERIAL OF LIFE. AN
ORGANISM'S DNA AFFECTS HOW IT LOOKS, HOW IT BEHAVES, AND ITS
PHYSIOLOGY — ALL ASPECTS OF ITS LIFE. SO A CHANGE IN AN
ORGANISM'S DNA CAN CAUSE CHANGES IN ALL ASPECTS OF ITS LIFE.
• MUTATIONS CAN BE BENEFICIAL, NEUTRAL, OR HARMFUL FOR THE
ORGANISM, BUT MUTATIONS DO NOT "TRY" TO SUPPLY WHAT THE
ORGANISM "NEEDS." IN THIS RESPECT, MUTATIONS ARE RANDOM —
WHETHER A PARTICULAR MUTATION HAPPENS OR NOT IS UNRELATED TO
HOW USEFUL THAT MUTATION WOULD BE.
 Types of Mutation

The types of mutation is given below

 Gene mutation
 Chromosome mutation

Gene Mutation
 change in the nucletide sequence of a gene.
 May only involve a single nucleotide .
 May be due to coping errors, chemicals, viruses etc.
 Chromosomal mutation

 A mutation is a change in the DNA change in phenotype (color).

 Generally, mutations are considered at the gene level, but some
types of mutation involve addition, loss, or change of DNA at the
chromosomal level.
 We basically consider two types of change:
 Change in chromosomal number.
 Change in chromosomal structure.
Change in DNA =Change in Phenotype=Raw material for variation=natural selection=
survival = evolution
DNA to RNA to Protein in central dogma mutation in DNA and RNA is more problematic
then Protein
Causes

1.Spontaneous mutation
• They are mainly caused during DNA replication or by incorporation of incorrect
nucleotide in the growing DNA chain.
• The occur naturally by changes in DNA sequence during replication.
2.Error-prone replication bypass
There is increasing evidence that the majority of spontaneously arising mutations are
due to error-prone replication (translation synthesis) past DNA damage in the template
strand. Naturally occurring oxidative DNA damages arise at least 10,000 times per cell
per day in humans and 50,000
times or more per cell per day in rats. In mice, the majority of mutations are
caused by translation synthesis. Likewise, in yeast, Kunz et al. found that more
than 60% of the spontaneous single base pair substitutions and deletions were
caused by translation synthesis.
3.Errors introduced during DNA repair
Although naturally occurring double-strand
breaks occur at a relatively low frequency in DNA, their repair often causes
mutation. Non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) is a major pathway for
repairing double-strand breaks. NHEJ involves removal of a few nucleotides to
allow somewhat inaccurate
 alignment of the two ends for rejoining followed by addition of nucleotides
to fill in gaps. As a consequence, NHEJ often introduces mutations.
4.Induced mutation
Induced mutations are alterations in the gene after it has
come in contact with mutagens and environmental causes.
Induced mutations on the molecular level can be caused by:
 Chemicals
 Hydroxylamine
 Base analogs (e.g., Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU))
 E.g.- Uv light, x-ray, gamma rays etc
Types of Mutation

 Missense mutation(change In the base pair)

 Nonsense mutation (alteration in the DNA base pair stops building a
protein)
 Insertion or Deletion
 Duplication: A duplication consists of a piece of DNA that is abnormally
copied one or more times
Mutation and Evolution:

 Mutations are the raw materials of evolution.

 Evolution absolutely depends on mutations because this is the only way
that new alleles( a form of Gene) and new regulatory regions are created.
 But this seems paradoxical because most mutations that we observe are
 harmful or, at best,
 neutral, for example:
 "silent" mutations encoding the same amino acid
 perhaps many of the mutations in the vast amounts of DNA that lie between genes.
 most mutations in genes affect a single protein product (or a small set of
related proteins produced by alternative splicing of a single gene
transcript) while much evolutionary change involves myriad structural and
functional changes in the phenotype.
One Solution: Duplication of Genes and
Genomes

 Mutations that would be harmful in a single pair of genes can be tolerated if

those genes have first been duplicated.
 Gene duplication in a diploid organism provides a second pair of genes so that
one pair can be safely mutated and tested in various combinations while the
essential functions of the parent pair are kept intact.
Possible benefits:
 Over time, one of the duplicates can acquire a new function. This can provide
the basis for adaptive evolution.
 After gene duplication, random loss of these genes at a later time in one group
of descendants different from the loss in another group could provide a barrier
to their interbreeding. Such a barrier could cause speciation: the evolution of
two different species from a single ancestral species.
A Second Solution: Mutations in Regulatory
Regions

 Not all genes are expressed in all cells. In which cells and when a given
gene will be expressed is controlled by the interaction of : extracellular
signals (Growth Factors, harmones, turning on (or off);
 transcription factors( is a protein that binds to specific DNA sequences to
control the flow), which turn on (or off);
 particular genes.
 A mutation that would be lethal in the protein coding region of a gene
need not be if it occurs in a control region (e.g. promoters and/or
enhancers) of that gene.
A Third Solution?

 Another theoretically-possible way by which a point mutation might give

rise to a new gene is if the point mutation in a previously noncoding
section of DNA converts a triplet of nucleotides into ATG thus creating a
new open reading frame (ORF)(e.g. TAA SGG). It is increasingly evident
that much of noncoding DNA is transcribed into a heterogeneous
collection of RNAs.
Large Changes in Phenotype Can Come
from Small Changes in Genotype

Selector Genes
 The building of an organ requires the coordinated activity of many genes.
However, these are often organized in hierarchies so that "upstream
genes" regulate the activity of "downstream genes". The closer you get to
the top with a mutation, the greater the changes affected downstream.