Exercise 4

Effects of Controls
 AIM
To introduce the basic aircraft controls, their
method of operation and how they affect the
aircraft in flight.
 Why is it Taught?

To give the student a thorough

knowledge and understanding of the principles
involved
in the use of basic flight controls.
 NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION
FIRST LAW

A body will remain at rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an

external, unbalanced force.

SECOND LAW

A body will accelerate in the direction of the applied force. The

acceleration will be directly proportional to the applied force.

THIRD LAW

To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

 Aerodynamic Principles Involved in
Production of Lift

Equation of Continuity:
Principle: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed. As a result
air mass flow is constant.
The mass of an airflow will remain at a constant value.

AxV=C
 Bernoulli’s Theory:

States that in a Streamline flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of the

pressure energy plus the potential energy plus the kinetic energy
will remain constant.

The total energy of a particle in motion is constant at all points on

its path of steady flow.

Dynamic Pressure Energy + Static Pressure Energy = Constant Total Energy

( D + S = Constant )
 Venturi

Large Area Small Area Large Area

Static Pressure Energy:
Atmospheric Pressure
Dynamic Pressure Energy:

Pressure Energy due to Motion

 Venturi
Remember: D + S = Constant
 Flat plate lift
A flat plate can generate lift, but produces a relatively small amount
of lift with a large amount of drag

By adding a curvature or camber the amount of lift is greatly increased

with a less amount of drag
Aerofoil terminology and definitions
 Total reaction

Total Reaction

Lift

Chord Line

Drag

AoA

RAF

The total reaction is generated by the wing and is broken up into two components

 LIFT - Perpendicular to the relative airflow

 DRAG - Parallel to the relative airflow and

opposing motion
 Pressure distribution with changes of
angle of attack

As angle of attack is increased, pressure distribution changes on the aerofoil

Total reaction increases and the center of pressure moves forward

 Lift
The amount of lift generated by an aerofoil is dependent on the following factors

Wing shape

Angle of attack

Air density

Airspeed

Wing surface area

By combining these factors we obtain the lift formula

Lift = cL½v²s
cL = shape of wing & angle of attack
 = air density
v = Airspeed
s surface area of the wing
FORCES ACTING ON THE AIRCRAFT IN LEVEL
FLIGHT

LIFT

THRUST DRAG

WEIGHT
 WEIGHT

Weight acts through the center of gravity and always

acts straight down to the center of the earth
 LIFT

Lift is an aerodynamic force created by the wings moving through the air.

Lift acts through the centre of pressure

Lift balances weight while the aircraft is flying

 The lift curve
A lift curve can be drawn to show how lift changes with change in angle of attack
 Thrust
o Thrust is the force that counteracts and is equal and opposite to drag

o Thrust is produced by the engine and propeller or a jet engine . propelling the
aircraft forward

Thrust
 Drag

 Drag is the resistance of motion of the aircraft through the air and is equal to thrust.

 Drag acts parallel and in the same direction as the RAF

TOTAL
DRAG
 Drag
Total Drag

Parasite Drag Induced Drag

Form
Skin Friction
Interference

Parasite drag – zero lift drag (shape of object)

Induced drag – lift dependent drag

 Parasite drag
Form drag

Form drag is created by the size and shape of the body travelling through the air
 Skin friction drag

 Is formed by the friction between the air and the surface its moving over.

 The rougher the surface the greater the drag.

 A bad spray job, ice accumulation or even dirt can cause skin friction drag
 Interference drag
Interference drag is caused when conflicting air flows meet. For example where
the fuselage and the wings join.

Fairing
 Parasite/Profile drag

As airspeed increases the parasite drag increases exponentially

 Induced drag
 Induced drag is created as a result of producing lift

 Air always flows from high to low pressure

 Due to the difference in pressures above and below the wing vortices will form
 At the trailing edge of the wing, the airflows meet and form small eddies

 At the wingtip a large vortex forms called wingtip vortices

 Induced drag and speed
As angle of attack is increased, lift is increased and therefore induced drag increased

For constant lift, as airspeed is increased angle of attack decreases

and the amount of induced drag decreases

 Total drag
By combining the Parasite drag curve with the Induced Drag curve we obtain
the Total Drag curve
 Drag
The amount of drag generated by an aerofoil is dependent on the following
factors

Wing shape

Angle of attack

Air density

Airspeed

Wing surface area

By combining these factors we obtain the drag formula

drag = cd½v²s

cd = shape of wing & angle of attack

 = air density
v = Airspeed
s surface area of the wing
 The Drag Curve
On the drag curve it can be seen how the drag changes with a change in angle of
attack.
The Flight Controls
THE FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES
 AIRCRAFT AXIS
All aircraft axis run through the center of gravity
 Primary effect of aileron

 Ailerons are controlled by left and right movements of the control column
causing the aircraft to roll

 Moving the control column left deflects the left aileron up

creating lift in the opposite direction

 The right aileron is deflected down increasing the camber and lift

the difference in lift causes the aircraft to roll

 Primary effect of elevator

 The elevator is controlled by fore and aft movement of the control column
causing the aircraft to pitch up or down

 Deflecting the elevator up causes the nose to pitch up toward the canopy

 Deflecting the elevator down causes the nose to pitch towards the undercarriage
 Primary effect of rudder

 The rudder is controlled by left or right movement of the rudder pedals causing
the aircraft to yaw

 Depressing the left rudder pedal causes the rudder to move left and the nose
of the aircraft to yaw left

 Depressing the right rudder pedal causes the rudder to move right and the
nose of the aircraft to yaw right

 The rudder pedals also steer the aircraft on the ground

 Secondary Effect of Aileron

Roll causes the aircraft to bank and a slip results to the lower wing

Airflow strikes the rudder crating an AoA and a force in the opposite direction

Lift

Sideslip component

Weight

Aircraft begins to yaw in direction of roll resulting in a spiral

dive
Primary effect - roll

Secondary effect - yaw

 Secondary Effect of Rudder
 Yaw causes the outer wing to move faster thereby increasing lift

 Outer wing begins to roll in the direction of yaw resulting in a spiral dive

Primary effect - yaw

Secondary effect - roll

Secondary Effect of Aileron Secondary Effect of Rudder
Recovery From A Spiral Dive
Close power
Roll wings level
Ease out the dive
Apply power as nose cuts horizon
 Adverse aileron yaw

 On the down going aileron up going wing, lift and drag is increased

 On the up going aileron down going wing, lift and drag in decreased

The differential lift will cause roll and differential drag will cause yaw in
the opposite direction of the roll
 Combating adverse aileron yaw

Differential ailerons

Up going aileron deflects more than down going aileron increasing the drag
 Combatting adverse aileron yaw

Frise-type ailerons

Leading edge of the up going aileron protrudes into airflow creating more drag
THE EFFECTS OF FLIGHT CONTROLS
The secondary flight controls

i. FLAPS
ii. TRIM
iii. AIRSPEED AND SLIPSTREAM
iv. EFFECTS OF POWER
v. MIXTURE CONTROL
vi. CARBURETTOR HEAT
 THE EFFECTS OF FLIGHT CONTROLS
The secondary flight controls

Effect of flaps

• Flaps are normally situated on the inboard section of the wing

• Flaps increase the camber of the wing increasing the total reaction

• As flaps are lowered the increase in lift cases aircraft to balloon

 Effect of flaps

 As lift increases when flaps are lowered, induced drag will also increase

 Flaps improve the forward field of vision and enable the aircraft to fly slower

Without Flaps
flaps extended
Different flap designs
 Effects of trim
• Trim is used to relieve pressure on the control column

• Trim tabs move the elevator to give a small aerodynamic force

eliminating pressure on the control column

• Trim tabs are controlled in the cockpit electronically or with a trim wheel

• Trimming is essential for accurate flying

 Effect of airspeed and slipstream
 An increase in airflow over the control surfaces increases the control effectiveness
 An increase in propeller velocity cause an increase in the airflow striking the tail and
causes an increase in the yaw to the left and opposite if power is reduced
 Effect of power
 An increase in power causes the nose of the aircraft to pitch up due to
the thrust / drag couple
 The aircraft yaws to the left due to the slipstream effect

 A decrease in power causes the nose to pitch down

 A decrease in power causes the aircraft to yaw right

 The throttle controls the power

 Effect of mixture control
The mixture controls the fuel / air ratio to:

I. Shut down the engine

I. Achieve peak power at altitude

I. Achieve best fuel economy during flight

Mixture control restricts the amount of fuel entering the carburettor when a
lean mixture is required
 Effect of carburettor heat

• Carburettor ice forms when the air entering the carburettor is moist

• Hot air is ducted off the exhaust

and fed into the carburettor to
prevent icing

• The hot air will cause a decrease in rpm