NATURAL DRUGS AND EXCIPIENTS Alekh N Sahu,

Associate Professor,
PH341, L -T-P: 2-0-2, Maximum: 26 Lectures Department of Pharmaceutical
Engineering & Technology
5 TH SEMESTER B.TECH. & IDD
 Registration into the course
Coordination committee: A N Sahu, ansahu.phe@iitbhu.ac.in, 9451137862 – 1L
Dr. S. Hemalatha - Convener: shemalatha.phe@iitbhu.ac.in, 9415256481-1L
Dr. S. K. Mishra: skmishra.phe@iitbhu.ac.in, 9793523844 – 2P
L-T-P: 2-0-2; Credits: 8; Tuesday (1:30-2:25 PM) and Thursday (1:30-2:25 PM)
Teaching Assistant: Ms. Himani, himani.phe18@itbhu.ac.in, 7803073053

Template
Sagar Suberwal – PHE
sagarsuberwal.phe18@itbhu.ac.in
9992591481
OBJECTIVE: To study different chemical categories of herbal
drugs and their scientific study.
.

OUTCOME: Students will learn about Pharmacognosy of different crude

drugs.

CLASSES: Tuesday (1:30-2:25 PM) and Thursday (1:30-2:25 PM)

COURSE TOPICS:
Course Content:
Dr. S. Hemalatha
UNIT I. Introduction and significance of natural drugs and excipients (1 Lecture)
Basic understanding and classification of each of the following phytochemical class; study of
the biological sources, cultivation, collection, preparation, production chemical constituents,
substitutes, adulterants, uses, diagnostic macroscopic and microscopic features and specific
chemical tests, trade & commerce of following groups of drugs:
UNIT II. Resins: Study of Drugs Containing Resins and Resin Combinations like
podophyllum, Asafoetida, Benzoin, Turmeric and Ginger (3 Lectures)
UNIT III. Alkaloid containing drugs: Pyridine‐Piperidine: Tobacco; Tropane: Belladonna,
Hyoscyamus, and Datura; Quinoline and
Isoquinoline: Cinchona, and Opium; Indole: Ergot, Rauwolfia, Catharanthus, Nux‐vomica
and Physostigma; Steroidal: Kurchi. (4 Lectures)
UNIT IV. Drugs / excipients from mineral origin: Talc, Kaolin, Bentonite, Kieselguhr &
Asbestos (2 Lectures)
UNIT V. Pharmaceutical enzymes from plant, animal and microbial source, description,
production and uses (3 Lectures)
Alakh N Sahu

UNIT VI. Carbohydrates and derived products: Agar, Acacia, Honey, Pectin, Starch and
Tragacanth (2 Lectures)
UNIT VII. Lipids: Bees wax, Castor oil, Codliver oil, Linseed oil, Sesame oil and Wool
fat (2 Lectures)
UNIT VIII. Pharmaceutical fibres: Cotton, Jute, Flax, Hemp, Silk, Wool, regenerated &
synthetic (2 Lectures)
UNIT IX. Tannins: Study of tannins and tannin containing drugs ‐ Catechu and
Myrobalan (1 Lectures)
UNIT X. Volatile oils: Coriander, Cinnamon, Caraway, Dill, Clove, Fennel and
Cardamom (2 Lectures)
UNIT XI. Glycoside containing drugs: Saponins: Liquorice and Dioscorea; Cardioactive
glycosides: Digitalis, Squill and Strophanthus; Anthraquinone glycosides: Aloe and Senna
(4 Lectures)
READINGS
Textbooks:
1. Evans WC, Trease and Evans – Pharmacognosy, 15th edn., WB
Saunders, London, 2002.
2. Shah B and Seth AK, Textbook of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, 1st edn., Elsevier, New Delhi, 2010.

Reference books:
1. Wallis TE, Textbook of Pharmacognosy, 5th edn., CBS Publishers
and Distributors, New Delhi.

Peer reviewed journal articles

 EVALUATION

Home assignment: 10%: Mid-term exam: 30%:

Allotted: 30.07.2019; PPT submission September 16 - 20, 2019
on 13.08.2019

Quizzes: 20% (5marks each) End semester exam: 40%

1st: 24.09.2019
2nd : 05.11.2019 November 20, 2019 onwards
3rd : Dr. S. Hemalatha
4th : Dr. S. K. Mishra
Attendance: 75% at least
Make a 40 page copy for Quizzes only
 Registration into the course
Coordination committee: A N Sahu, ansahu.phe@iitbhu.ac.in, 9451137862 – 1L
Dr. S. Hemalatha - Convener: :shemalatha.phe@iitbhu.ac.in, 9415256481-1L
Dr. S. K. Mishra: skmishra.phe@iitbhu.ac.in, 9793523844 – 2P
L-T-P: Credits: 8; Tuesday (1:30-2:25 PM) and Thursday (1:30-2:25 PM)
Teaching Assistant: Ms. Himani, himani.phe18@itbhu.ac.in, 7803073053

Template
Sagar Suberwal – PHE
sagarsuberwal.phe18@itbhu.ac.in
9992591481
CARBOHYDRATES AND DERIVED PRODUCTS
By
Alekh Niranjan Sahu , Associate Professor
Department of Pharmaceutical Engg. & Tech., Indian Institute of Technology (BHU),
Varanasi-221 005. Uttar Pradesh, India. ansahu.phe@iitbhu.ac.in; 9451137862
INTRODUCTION
Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with the last two
elements usually present in the same proportions as in water (CH2O)n ie.
hydrates of carbon.
Ex-C6H12O6 (Glucose)
All organic compounds containing hydrogen and oxygen in the above
proportion are not carbohydrates.(Ex-CH3COOH)
Also some large no of carbohydrates does not contain the above proportion .
Ex-Rhamnose, C6H12O5 , Cymarose, C7H14O4
The definition may further be extended:

Carbohydrates[CX(H2O)Y] are usually defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes and

ketones or substances that hydrolyze to yield polyhydroxy aldehydes and
ketones.
Simple carbohydrates are known as sugars or saccharides (Latin saccharum,
sugar) and the ending of the names of most sugars is –ose. For example:
Glucose (for the principle sugar in blood)
Fructose (for a sugar in fruits and honey)
Sucrose (for ordinary table sugar)
Maltose (for malt sugar)
Carbohydrates are among the first products to arise as a result of photosynthesis.

They constitute a large proportion of the plant biomass and are responsible, as cellulose,
for the rigid cellular framework and, as starch, for providing an important food reserve.

Sugars unite with a wide variety of other compounds to form glycosides.

Low molecular weight carbohydrates are crystalline, soluble in water & sweet in
taste (Ex-Glucose ,Fructose, Sucrose).

High molecular weight carbohydrates are amorphous, relatively less soluble and
tasteless in nature(Ex-Starch, cellulose, Inulin).
CLASSIFICATION
MONOSACCHARIDE
Contain a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit (saccharo is Greek for “sugar”)
(e.g., glucose, fructose) that on hydrolysis does not give further sugars i,e. they are
simple sugars.
The general formula for monosachharide is (CnH2nOn).
Monosaccharides are classified according to:
1.The number of carbon atoms present in the molecule.(Biose, triose, tetrose,
pentose, hexose, heptose etc.)
2.Whether they contain an aldehyde or ketone group.
A monosaccharide containing three carbon atoms is called a triose; one containing four
carbon atoms is called a tetrose.
•A monosaccharide containing an aldehyde group is called an aldose; one containing a
keto group is called a ketose.
Biose-Contain two carbon atoms. They do not occur freely in nature.
Triose-Contain three carbon atoms, but in the form of phosphoric ester.
Ex-Glyceraldehyde
Tetrose –Contain four carbon atom.
Ex-Erythrose, threose.

Pentose-Contain five carbon atom, very common in plants.

Ex-Ribose, arabinose, xylose.
Hexose-Contain six carbon atoms, abundantly available carbohydrates of plant kingdom. Ex-
Glucose, Fructose, mannose, galactose etc.
They may be obtained by hydrolysis of polysaccharides like starch, inulin etc.
They are further divided into aldose and ketose based upon the functional group present over
it.

Heptose-They contain seven carbon atoms, essential for photosynthesis in plants, rarely found
in plants & glucose metabolism in animals .Ex-Glucoheptose, Manoheptose.
THE RELATIVE SWEETNESS OF SUGARS (SUCROSE = 1.00 )
DISACCHARIDE
Disaccharide on hydrolysis is cleaved to two monosaccharide, which may be the same or
different. e.g. sucrose
Trisaccharide
Yield three molecules of monosaccharides upon hydrolysis.

Tetrasaccharide
Yield four molecules of monosaccharidesd upon hydrolysis. Ex-Manna
POLYSACCHARIDES
Polysaccharides are hydrolyzed to indefinite number of monosaccharide units.
The name ‘oligosaccharide’ (Greek oligo, few) is often applied to saccharides
containing from 2 to 10 units.

In polysaccharides the number of sugar units is much larger and the number
forming the molecule is often only approximately known.

Cellulose is a polysaccharide molecule that gives thousands of glucose

molecules when completely hydrolyzed.
Polysaccharides, also known as glycans, consist of monosaccharides joined together by
glycosidic linkages.
β 1- 4 glycosidic bond (carbon atom number 1 (C1) in one sugar is linked to the fourth
carbon atom (C4) of the next sugar in an extended array) in Cellulose ( Glucose units).
In starch: Glucose molecules in starch are also joined together by linking the C1 carbon of
one sugar to the C4 carbon of the next sugar in the sequence - α-glycosidic bonds.
However, these molecules are not straight or totally linear. At intervals along the starch
molecule there are branches produced by another kind of glycosidic link between the C1
carbon on one sugar and the C6 carbon on the next sugar.
•Polysaccharides that are polymers of a single monosaccharide are called
homopolysaccharides; those made up of more than one type of monosaccharide are
called heteropolysaccharides.
Homopolysaccharidesare also classified on the basis of their monosaccharide units.
•A homopolysaccharide consisting of glucose monomeric unit is called a glucan, one
consisting of galactose units is a galactan, and so on.
The hydrolysis of polysaccharides, by enzymes or reagents, often results in a
succession of cleavages, but the final products are hexoses or pentoses or their
derivatives. The term ‘polysaccharide’ may usefully be taken to include
polysaccharide complexes which yield in addition to monosaccharides their
sulphate esters, uronic acids or amino sugars.
THE STEREOCHEMISTRY OF CARBOHYDRATES
Stereoisomers

• Glyceraldehyde, the simplest carbohydrate, exists in two isomeric forms that are mirror
images of each other.

These forms are stereoisomers of each other.

• Glyceraldehyde is a chiral molecule — it cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. The

two mirror image forms of glyceraldehyde are enantiomers of each other.
 CHIRAL CARBONS

• Any carbon atom which is connected to four different groups will be chiral,
and will have two non-superimposable mirror images; it is a chiral carbon or
a center of chirality.

If any of the two groups on the carbon are the same, the carbon atom cannot be
chiral.

• Many organic compounds, including carbohydrates, contain more than one

chiral carbon.
Examples: Chiral Carbons in Carbohydrates
Fischer Projection: A way of representing an acyclic (open chain) carbohydrate

structure.

Haworth Projection: A way of representing a cyclic (closed chain) carbohydrate.

Substituents can either point up or down on this ring.

Chair Conformation: The most stable conformation of cyclohexane that resembles a chair.
The designation 'α-' means that the hydroxyl group attached to C-1 and the -CH2OH
group at C-5 lies on opposite sides of the ring's plane (a trans arrangement), while 'ß-'
means that they are on the same side of the plane (a cis arrangement).
HAWORTH PROJECTION
In Haworth configuration, all groups to the right of carbon skeleton in fischer
projection are oriented down while all groups to the left of carbon backbone are
oriented up, except those around C5 ,the reverse orientation occur.
D AND L NOTATION:
We need to make sure that the glucose is a D-glucose. We do this by looking at the
monosaccharide with the ketone or aldehyde group on top; if the –OH group on the bottom-
most asymmetric carbon is on the left side, the notation is L; if the –OH group on the bottom-
most asymmetric carbon is on the right side, the notation is D.
TESTS FOR CARBOHYDRATES

Reduction of Fehling’s solution

To a heated solution of the carbohydrate, equal equal parts of Fehling’s solution A (?)and
B (?) was added . After heating a brick-red precipitate is obtained .

Molisch’s test

All carbohydrates give a purple colour when treated with α-naphthol and concentrated
sulphuric acid. With a soluble carbohydrate this appears as a ring if the sulphuric acid is
gently poured in to form a layer below the aqueous solution. With an insoluble carbohydrate
such as cotton-wool (cellulose) the colour will not appear until the acid layer is shaken to
bring it in contact with the material.
Osazone formation

Osazones are sugar derivatives formed by heating a sugar solution with

phenylhydrazine hydrochloride, sodium acetate and acetic acid. If the yellow
crystals which form are examined under the microscope they are sufficiently
characteristic for certain sugars to be identified. It should be noted that glucose and
fructose form the same osazone (glucosazone, m.p. 205°C). Before melting points are
taken, osazones should be purified by recrystallization from alcohol. Sucrose does not
form an osazone, but under the conditions of the above test sufficient hydrolysis takes
place for the production of glucosazone.
Osazones are a class of carbohydrate derivatives found in organic chemistry formed
when sugars are reacted with excess of phenylhydrazine.

The famous German chemist Emil Fischer developed and used the reaction to identify
sugars whose stereochemistry differed by only one chiral carbon. Glucosazone and
fructosazone are identical.

Osazones formation test involves the reaction of a reducing sugar (free carbonyl group)
with excess of phenylhydrazine when kept at boiling temperature. All reducing sugars
form osazones.

Therefore, sucrose, for example, does not form osazone crystals because it is a
non reducing sugar as it has no free carbonyl group.
Reducing monosaccharides: Galactose, Glucose and Fructose

Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides and can be classified

as either reducing or nonreducing.

Non-reducing disaccharides: Sucrose and Trehalose have glycosidic

bonds between their anomeric carbons and thus cannot convert to an open-
chain form with an aldehyde group; they are stuck in the cyclic form.

Reducing disaccharides: Lactose and Maltose - they can convert to an

open-chain form with an aldehyde group.
Resorcinol test for ketones

This is known as Selivanoff’s test. A crystal of resorcinol is added to the solution

and warmed on a water-bath with an equal volume of concentrated hydrochloric
acid. A rose colour is produced if a ketone is present (e.g. fructose, honey or
hydrolysed inulin).

Test for pentoses.

Heat a solution of the substance in a test-tube with an equal volume of

hydrochloric acid containing a little phloroglucinol. Formation of a red colour
indicates pentoses.
Keller–Kiliani test for deoxysugars

Deoxysugars are found in cardiac glycosides such as those of Digitalis and

Strophanthus spp.The sugar is dissolved in acetic acid containing a trace of
ferric chloride and transferred to the surface of concentrated sulphuric
acid. At the junction of the liquids a reddish-brown colour is produced
which gradually becomes blue.

Enzyme reactions.

Since certain carbohydrate reactions are only brought about by certain specific
enzymes, such enzymes may be used for identification.
Furfural test

A carbohydrate sample is heated in a test tube with a drop of syrupy

phosphoric acid to convert it to furfural. A disc of filter paper moistened
with a 10% solution of aniline in 10 % acetic acid is placed over the
mouth of the test tube. The buttom of the test tube is heated for 30 to 60
seconds. A pink or red stain appear on reagent paper.
CARBOHYDRATES BIO SYNTHESIS
Carbohydrates are product of photosynthesis, a biological process that converts
electromagnetic energy to chemical energy. Photosynthesis consist of two class of
reaction.

Light reaction that converts electromagnetic energy into chemical potential. The other
class consist of enzymatic reaction that utilizes the energy from light reaction to fix carbon
dioxide into sugar.

The pathway of carbon in photosynthesis is worked out by Calvin and co worker.

Carbohydrate Antibiotics
• One of the important discoveries in carbohydrate chemistry was the isolation of the
carbohydrate antibiotic called streptomycin.
• Streptomycin is made up of three unusual components.
• The glycosidic linkage is nearly always α.