Magnetism and Magnetic Fields

Chapter 22 Lecture
Pearson Physics
Magnetism and
Magnetic Fields
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter Contents
• Magnets and Magnetic Fields

• Magnetism and Electric Currents
• The Magnetic Force
• 6 terms

Chapter 22 Lecture
22-1: Magnets and Pearson Physics

Magnetic Fields
Objectives:
• Identify the defining
characteristics of north and
south magnetic poles.
• Determine the direction of the
magnetic field at a given
location.
• Describe Earth’s magnetic field.

Magnets and Magnetic Fields
• The effects of magnetism have been known since
antiquity. For example, a piece of naturally occurring
iron-oxide mineral known as lodestone can behave
just like a manufactured magnet.
• Your first direct experience with magnetism was
probably a playful exploration of bar magnets and their
properties. From such experiences, you know that the
two ends of a magnet are different.
• Specifically, you learned that a bar magnet attracts or
repels another bar magnet depending on which ends
of the magnet are brought together.

• One end of a magnet is referred to as its north pole
and is labeled N. The other end of a magnet is its
south pole, which is labeled S.
• The poles of a bar magnet are defined by suspending
it from a string so that it is free to rotate like a
compass needle.
• The end of a freely rotating bar magnet that points
toward the north geographic pole of the Earth is the
north-seeking pole, or simply the north pole.
• The opposite end of the magnet is the
south-seeking pole, or simply the south pole.

• An interesting aspect of magnets is that they always
have two poles. You might think that if you broke a
magnet in two, each of the halves would have just one
pole. That's not what happens. Instead, breaking a
magnet in half produces two new poles on either side
of the break, as is illustrated in the figure below.

• This behavior is different from that of electricity, in that the two
types of charge (positive and negative) can exist separately.
Physicists continue to look for a single magnetic pole, known as
a magnetic monopole, but none has been found.
• If two magnets are brought together in such a way that their
opposite poles approach each other, as in the figure below, the
force each experiences is attractive.

• Like poles brought together, as shown below,
experience a repulsive force.
• Just as an electric charge creates an electric field, so

too does a magnet create a magnetic field. A
magnetic field is a vector force field that surrounds
any magnetic material.

• In addition to exerting force, a magnetic field also contains
energy, just like an electric field. The greater the energy, the
more intense the field.
• A magnetic field, which is represented with the symbol B, can
be visualized using small iron filings sprinkled onto a smooth
surface. In figure (a) on the next slide, for example, a sheet of
glass is placed on top of a bar magnet. When iron filings are
sprinkled onto the glass sheet, they align with the magnetic field
in their vicinity. The pattern they form gives a good idea of the
overall field produced by the magnet.

• Similar effects are created by the magnet shown in the

figure below. Because of its shape, the magnet is
referred to as a horseshoe magnet.

• Notice that the filings are bunched together near the
poles of the magnets in the previous figures. This is
where the magnet field is most intense. This can be
illustrated by drawing field lines that are close together
to one another near the poles (see figure below).

• The field weakens as you move away from the magnet
in any direction. This weakening is indicated by a
wider separation between field lines.

• In addition, the lines form closed loops that leave the
magnet at the north pole and enter it at the south pole.
• As the previous figure indicates, the direction of a
magnetic field at a given location is defined as the
direction a compass needle would point if placed at
that location.
• Because opposites attract, the north pole of a
compass needle—the end with the arrowhead—points
toward the south pole of the magnet.

• Recall that that the direction in which a compass
points at any given location is the direction of the
magnetic field at that point. Since a compass can point
in one direction at a given point, there must be only
one direction for the magnetic field, B. If field lines
were to cross, there would be two directions for B at
the crossing point. As a result, magnetic field lines can
never cross.

• The common household refrigerator magnet provides an
interesting example of a magnetic field.
• These magnets are composed of multiple narrow magnet strips
of opposite polarity, as indicated in the figure below.

• The net effect of these strips is a magnetic field similar

to the field that would be produced by a large number
of tiny horseshoe magnets placed side by side.

• Earth, like many planets, produces its own magnetic
field. In many respects, Earth's magnetic field is like
that of a giant bar magnet, as illustrated in the figure
below.

• As the preceding figure indicates, there is a magnetic
pole near each geographic pole of the Earth. In
addition, the field lines are essentially horizontal
(parallel to the Earth's surface) near the equator but
enter or leave the Earth near the poles.
• Because the north pole of a compass points toward
the north geographic pole of Earth, and because
opposites attract, we can conclude that the north
geographic pole of Earth is actually near the south
pole of the Earth's magnetic field. This is shown in the
figure on the previous slide.

• The axis of the magnetic poles is not perfectly aligned
with the rotational axis of the Earth. Instead, it is
inclined at an angle that varies slowly with time.
Presently, the magnetic axis is tilted away from the
rotational axis by an angle of about 11.5°.
• Scientist know that Earth's magnetic field has
reversed direction many times over the ages. The last
reversal occurred about 780,000 years ago. There are
signs that Earth may be preparing for another such
reversal.

• As magnetic fields go, Earth's is relatively weak. To
make this quantitative, we note that magnetic field
strength is measured in terms of a unit called the tesla
(T). The tesla is named in recognition of the
pioneering electrical and magnetic studies of the
Croatian-born American engineer Nikola Tesla (1856–
1943).
• A magnetic field of 1 T is rather large. In comparison,
the magnetic field at the surface of Earth is roughly 5.0
x 10−5 T.
• Another commonly used unit for magnetism is the
gauss (G), which is defined as 1 G = 10−4 T.

• The gauss is not an SI unit. Even so, it finds wide
usage because of its convenient magnitude. In terms
of the gauss, Earth's magnetic field at its surface is
approximately 0.5 G.
• The magnitudes of some typical magnetic fields are
given in the table below.

• As was mentioned previously, Earth's magnetic field reverses
direction over geological time periods. These reversals have left
a permanent record in the rocks of the ocean floors.
• The figure below shows that molten rock is being extruded from
a mid-ocean ridge.

• The extruded rock has no magnetization because of
its high temperature. When the rock cools, however, it
becomes magnetized in the direction of Earth's
magnetic field. In effect, the direction of Earth's
magnetic field becomes "frozen" in the solidified rock.
• As the seafloor spreads, and more rock is formed
along the mid-ocean ridge, a continuous record of
Earth's magnetic field is formed. If the Earth's field
reverses at some point in time, the field in the
solidified rock will record the fact.

• At the microscopic level, the magnetic field of a
magnet is due to the magnetic fields produced by
electrons in its atoms. Each electron acts like a small
bar magnet.
• In some materials the magnetic fields of the electrons
cancel, leaving zero net magnetic field.
• In other materials—like iron, nickel, and cobalt—the
magnetic fields of the electrons don't cancel, and the
electrons in neighboring atoms tend to align with one
another, producing a strong magnetic field.

• The magnetic field of any magnetic material is broken
up into regions in which the field points in different
directions, as is indicated in the figure below.
• A region within a magnetic material where the

electrons are aligned in the same direction is referred
to as a magnetic domain.

• Each domain has a strong magnetic field in a given
direction. Different domains are oriented differently,
however, so that the net effect may be small. The
typical size of these domains is on the order of 10−4
cm to 10−1 cm.
• When an external magnetic field is applied to such a
material, the magnetic domains that are pointing in the
direction of the applied field tend to grow in size at the
expense of the domains with different orientations.

• This is illustrated in the figure below. The result is a
net magnetization of the material—it becomes a
permanent magnet.

• Many small animals are known to have small magnetic
crystals (magnetite) in their bodies. For example,
some species of bacteria use magnetite crystals to
help orient themselves with respect to Earth's
magnetic field.
• Magnetite has also been found in the brains of bees
and pigeons, where it is thought to play a role in
navigation. It is even found in human brains, though its
possible function there is unclear.

Chapter 22 Lecture
22-2: Magnetism and Pearson Physics

Electric Currents
Objectives:
magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire by using the right-
hand rule.
• Calculate the magnitude of the
magnetic field at a given point
near a current-carrying wire.
• Determine the force between
two current-carrying loops of
wire.

Magnetism and Electric Currents
• The connection between electricity and magnetism
was discovered accidentally by the Danish scientist
Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851) in 1820.
• Oersted was giving a science lecture when he closed
a switch and allowed a current to flow through a wire.
He noticed that a nearby compass needle rotated
rapidly when the switch was closed.
• With that simple observation, Oersted discovered that
electric currents can create magnetic fields.

• To visualize the magnetic field produced by a wire, consider a
long, straight wire that carries a current, I.
• Shaking iron filings onto a sheet of paper that is pierced by the
wire results in a circular pattern of filings centered on the wire
(see figure (a) below). Clearly, the magnetic field "circulates"
around the wire.

• We can gain additional information about the magnetic
field by placing a group of small compasses about the
wire, as in figure (b) below.
• In addition to confirming the circular shape of the field

lines, the compass needles show the field's direction.

• To understand this direction, we use the magnetic field
right-hand rule (RHR):
• This rule is illustrated by the compass needles in the

figure on the next slide.

• As the figure indicates, to find the direction of the

field, point the thumb of the right hand in the
direction of the current, I. The fingers then curl in
the direction of the magnetic field, B.
• In some cases a magnetic field will point into or out of
the page. This can be difficult to draw. Therefore, we
establish the convention that the symbol ⊗ indicates
that the magnetic field points into the page.
• The way to remember this is to think of a magnetic
field vector as an arrow. At the end of the arrow are
crossed feathers. Therefore, if you view a vector from
behind, it looks like an X.

• Similarly, if the arrow points out of the page, all you will see is
the point at its tip. Thus, we represent a magnetic field vector
pointing out of the page with the symbol ⊙, where the dot
represents the tip of the arrow.
• These convections are applied in the following example.

• Experiments show that the magnetic field produced by
a current-carrying wire doubles if the current, I,
doubles. In addition, the field doubles if the radial
distance from the wire, r, is halved.
• These observations are summarized in one statement:
The magnetic field produced by a current in a wire is
proportional to the current and inversely proportional
to the radial distance from the wire.

• The magnetic field for a long, straight wire is given by
the following equation:
• In this equation, µ0, is a constant called the

permeability of free space. Its value is
µ0 = 4π x 10−7 T·m/A

• The following example shows how to use the magnetic
field equation.

• The total magnetic field is found when two current-
carrying wires contribute to the field.

• You’ve seen that a long, straight wire carrying an electric
current produces a magnetic field. What happens if a straight
wire is wrapped into a circular loop instead?
• Figure (a) below shows a wire loop connected to a battery
producing a current in the direction indicated.

• Using the magnetic field RHR, as shown in the figure,
we see that the magnetic field points from left to right
as it passes through the loop.
• Notice also that the field lines are bunched together
within the loop, indicating that the field is intense
there. The field lines are more widely spaced outside
the loop, where the field is weaker.
• The most interesting aspect of the field produced by
the current-carrying loop is its close resemblance to
the field of a bar magnet, as is illustrated in figure (b)
on the next slide.

• Notice that one side of the loop behaves like a north

magnetic pole (with field lines exiting) and the other
side like a south magnetic pole (with field lines
entering).
• When two loops with identical currents are placed next
to one another, the force between loops will be similar
to the force between two bar magnets pointing in the
same direction (see figure below).

• As you can see, the ghosted bar magnets would attract one
another, since their opposite poles are near one another.
• Therefore, wires with currents in the same direction experience
an attractive force.
• As figure (b) below indicates, wires with currents in opposite
directions experience a repulsive force.

• A solenoid is an electrical device in which a long wire is wound
into a succession of closely spaced loops—forming a cylindrical
coil of wire.
• A solenoid carrying an electric current produces an intense,
nearly uniform magnetic field inside the loops, as indicated in
the figure below.

• For this reason, solenoids are commonly referred to
as electromagnets.
• Notice that each loop of a solenoid carries a current in
the same direction. It follows that the magnetic field
between loops is attractive and serves to hold them
tightly together.
• The magnetic field lines in the previous figure are
tightly packed inside the solenoid but are widely
spaced outside. In the case of a very long, tightly
packed solenoid, the magnetic field is intense and
uniform inside the solenoid.

• If a solenoid has N loops and length L, the magnetic
field inside the solenoid is given by the following
equation:
• Notice that the result is independent of the cross-

sectional area of the solenoid and that the field
depends directly on the number of loops per unit
length and on the current.

• When used as an electromagnet, a solenoid has many
useful properties.
– A solenoid produces a strong magnetic field that
can be turned on or off at the flip of switch—unlike
the field of a permanent magnet.
– The magnetic field of a solenoid can be intensified
by filling the core of the solenoid with an iron bar. In
such a case, the magnetic field of the solenoid
magnetizes the iron bar, and its field adds to that of
the solenoid.

• The magnetic field inside a solenoid is determined
using the solenoid equation.

Assignment
• P. 788
• Questions 1-6
• P. 795
• Questions 14-18

Chapter 22 Lecture
22-3: The Magnetic Force Pearson Physics

Objectives:
• Calculate the magnitude of the
force exerted by a magnetic field
on a moving charge.
force exerted by a magnetic field
on a moving charge.
• Determine the magnitude and
direction of the force exerted by
a magnetic field on a current-
carrying wire.

The Magnetic Force
• A magnetic field exerts a force on a moving charge. Both
the magnitude and the direction of this force have some
rather interesting characteristics.
• Consider a magnetic field, B, that points from left to right,
as indicated in the figure below.
• Suppose an object with a charge q moves through the

region with velocity v, and the angle between v and B is θ.

The Magnetic Force
• Experiment shows that the magnitude of the

force F experienced by this object is given by the
following equation:

The Magnetic Force
• Notice that the equation uses the magnitude of
the charge, |q|, because we are calculating the
magnitude of the force.
• The equation also shows that the magnitude of
the force depends on several different factors.
Two of these factors are the same as the electric
force.
– The magnetic force depends on the charge of
the object, q.
– The magnetic force depends on the
magnitude of the field, in this case, the
magnetic field, B.

The Magnetic Force
• However, the magnetic force also depends on

two factors that do not affect the strength of the
electric force:
– The magnetic force depends on the speed of
the object, v. An object at rest experiences no
force.
– The magnetic force depends on the angle θ
between the velocity vector and the magnetic
field vector.

The Magnetic Force
• It is important to note that an object must have a

charge and must be moving if the magnetic field
is to exert a force on it. Even then the force
vanishes if the object moves in the direction of
the field (that is, if θ = 0) or in the direction
opposite to the field (θ = 180°).
• Maximum magnetic force is exerted when a
charged object moves at right angles to the
magnetic field, so θ = 90° and sinθ = 1.

The Magnetic Force
• This rule is applied in figures (b) and (c) below.

Notice that F does indeed point upward for a
positive charge.

The Magnetic Force
• The deflection of moving charges by a magnetic field is
illustrated in the figure below.
• The image on the TV screen is produced by a beam of

electrons that "paints" the picture on the screen by illuminating
the appropriate pixels. When a magnet is held near the screen,
the electrons in the beam are deflected by the magnetic force,
resulting in a scrambled picture.

The Magnetic Force
• On a large scale, the northern lights—or aurora
borealis—are produced in a similar way. Positive and
negative particles, ripped apart from atoms on the Sun
by extremely high temperatures, form a gas-like
collection of ions referred to as a plasma.
• Plasmas can be thought of the fourth state of matter.
Though a plasma is similar to a gas, the fact that it
consists of electrically charged particles means that
electric and magnetic fields have a great influence on
its behavior.

The Magnetic Force
• For example, figure (a) below shows streams of
plasma shooting up from a storm on the surface of the
Sun. The plasma follows arching paths that trace out
the magnetic lines of the Sun.

The Magnetic Force
• Plasma shot into space from the Sun in an event known as a
coronal mass ejection forms what is known as a solar wind.
When the solar wind encounters Earth's magnetic field, the
charged particles are deflected by the magnetic force. As a
result, these particles concentrate where the field is most
intense—near the poles of Earth (see figure (b) below).

The Magnetic Force
• The particles excite atoms in the atmosphere, causing
them to glow and thus producing the northern lights,
shown in figure (c) below, as well as their southern
cousins, the aurora australis.

The Magnetic Force
• If the velocity of a charged object is perpendicular to a
magnetic field, the result is circular motion of the
object.
• In the figure below, an object of mass m, charge +q,
and speed v moves in a region with constant magnetic
field, B, pointing out of the paper.

The Magnetic Force
• A mass spectrometer is a device that makes use of circular
motion in a magnetic field to separate isotopes (atoms of the
same element that have different masses).
• In a mass spectrometer, a beam of charged particles enters a
region with a magnetic field perpendicular to the velocity (see
figure below).

The Magnetic Force
• A charged object experiences a force when it moves

across magnetic field lines. This is true whether it travels
in a vacuum or inside a current-carrying wire.
• Thus, a wire carrying a current in a magnetic field
experiences a magnetic force that is simply the sum of
all the magnetic forces experienced by the individual
charges moving within it.
• To see how the force on a current-carrying wire is
related to the forces on the individual charges, consider
a straight wire segment of length L with a current I
flowing left to right, as shown in the figure on the next
slide.

The Magnetic Force
• As the figure indicates, there is also a magnetic

field B present.
• The conducting charges move through the wire
with an average speed given by
v = L/Δt
The Magnetic Force
• The direction of the force on a current-carrying

wire is given by the magnetic force RHR; the
only difference is that you start by pointing your
right hand in the direction of the current, I.
• In the case illustrated in the figure below, the
force points out of the page.

The Magnetic Force
• The fact that a current-carrying wire experiences

a force when placed in a magnetic field is one of
the fundamental discoveries that makes modern
applications of electric power possible. In most
of these applications, including electric motors
and generators, the wire is shaped into a
current-carrying loop.
• We will now examine what happens when a
simple current-carrying loop is placed in a
magnetic field.

The Magnetic Force
• The torque exerted by a magnetic field finds a number
of useful applications. For example, if a needle is
connected to a coil, as in the figure below, it can be
used as part of a meter known as a galvanometer,
which is a device used to measure current in a circuit.

The Magnetic Force
• As a current passes through a galvanometer's coil, a
torque acts on it, causing it to rotate. The spring
ensures that the angle of rotation is proportional to
the current in the coil.
• Of even greater importance is the fact that magnetic
torque can be used to power a motor.
• Electric current passing through the coils of a motor
causes a torque that rotates the axel of the motor.
• Electric motors are used in everything from electric
razors to hybrid cars.

Chapter 23 Contents
• Electricity from Magnetism

• Electric Generators and Motors
• AC Circuits and Transformers
• 5 terms

Chapter 22 Lecture
23-1: Electricity From Pearson Physics

Magnetism
Objectives:
• Recognize that the induced emf in
a circuit is proportional to the rate
of change of the magnetic field.
• Define magnetic flux and calculate
the magnetic flux through a
surface.
• Identify the direction of an induced
current.

Electricity from Magnetism
• When Hans Oersted observed that an electric current
produces a magnetic field, it was pure serendipity. In
contrast, Michael Faraday (1791–1867), an English
chemist and physicist, was aware of Oersted's results,
and purposely set out to see if a magnetic field could
produce an electric field. His ingenious experiments
showed that such a connection does exist.
• Faraday found that a changing magnetic field
produces an electric current, but a magnetic field that
doesn’t change has no such effect. Faraday set out to
study this type of behavior.

• The following figure shows a simplified version of
Faraday's experiment.
• As the figure indicates, two electric circuits are

involved. The first, called the primary circuit, consists
of a battery, a switch, a resistor, and a wire coil
wrapped around an iron bar.

• When the switch is closed on the primary circuit, a
current flows through the coil, producing a strong
magnetic field in the iron bar.
• The secondary circuit also has a wire coil wrapped
around the same iron bar, and this coil is connected to
an ammeter that detects any current in the circuit.
There is no battery in the circuit, and no direct physical
contact between the two circuits. What does link the
circuits, instead, is the magnetic field in the iron bar.

• When the switch is closed on the primary circuit, the
magnetic field in the iron bar rises from zero to some
finite amount, and the ammeter in the secondary coil
deflects to one side briefly and then returns to zero. As
long as the current in the primary circuit is maintained
at a constant value, the ammeter in the secondary
circuit gives a zero reading.
• If the switch on the primary circuit is then opened, so
the magnetic field drops again to zero, the ammeter in
the secondary circuit deflects briefly in the opposite
direction and then returns to zero.

• These observations can be summarized as follows:
– The current in the secondary circuit is zero as long
as the magnetic field in the iron bar is constant. It
does not matter whether the constant value of the
magnetic field is zero or nonzero.
– When the magnetic field in the secondary coil
increases, a current is observed to flow in one
direction in the secondary coil. When the magnetic
field in the secondary coil decreases, a current is
observed to flow in the opposite direction.

• It is important to note that the current in the secondary
coil appears without any physical contact between the
primary and secondary coils.
• For this reason, the current in the secondary coil is
referred to as an induced current. The process of
inducing an electric current in a circuit by using a
changing magnetic field is known as electromagnetic
induction.

• Because an induced current behaves the same as a
current produced by an electromotive force (emf)
supplied by a battery, we say that the changing
magnetic field creates an induced emf in the
secondary circuit.
• As far as the circuit is concerned, the changing
magnetic field has the same effect as a battery.
• Faraday observed that the magnitude of the induced
emf is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic field—the more rapidly the magnetic field
changes, the greater the induced emf.

• Any means of changing the magnetic field is as effective as
changing the current in the primary.
• The figure below shows a demonstration of induced emf.
• In this case, there is no primary circuit; instead, the magnetic

field is changed by simply moving a bar magnet toward or away
from a coil connected to an ammeter.

• When the magnet is moved toward the coil, the meter
deflects in one direction; when it is pulled away from
the coil, the meter deflects in the opposite direction.
There is no deflection when the magnet is held still.
• Understanding electromagnetic induction requires a
new concept—magnetic flux. The word flux basically
means "flow." For example, the flux, or flow, of air
through a window is directly related to the direction of
the wind and the cross-sectional area of the window.

• Similarly, magnetic flux is a measure of the number of
magnetic field lines that pass through a given area.
• A magnetic field perpendicular to a surface gives a
high flux, and the larger the surface area, the greater
the flux. A magnetic field parallel to a surface gives
zero flux.
• Figure (a) on the next slide shows a magnetic field B
crossing a surface area, A, at right angles.

• The magnetic flux, Ф, in this case is simply the magnitude

of the magnetic field times the area:
Ф = BA
• If the magnetic field is parallel to the surface—like wind
blowing parallel to an open window—then no field lines
cross through the surface. As figure (b) on the next slide
shows, the magnetic flux in this case is zero: Ф = 0.
• In general, only the component of B that is perpendicular

to a surface contributes to the magnetic flux. The magnetic
field in figure (c) crosses the surface at an angle θ relative
to the normal.

• Faraday found that the secondary coil experiences an

induced emf only when the magnetic flux changes with
time. In general, the rate at which the magnetic flux
changes is defined as follows:
rate of change of magnetic flux =
change in magnetic flux/change in time = ΔФ/Δt
• If there are N loops in a coil, the induced emf is given by
Faraday's law of induction:

• A familiar example of Faraday's law in action is the dynamic
microphone. This type of microphone uses a stationary magnet
and a wire coil attached to a movable diaphragm, as illustrated
in the figure below.
• Sound waves move a coil of wire in a microphone, changing the

magnetic flux through the coil. The result is an induced emf that
is amplified and sent to speakers.

• Nature often reacts in a way that opposes change. For
example, if you compress a gas, the pressure of the gas
increases—and opposes the compression.
• A similar principle applies to induced electric currents. It is
known as Lenz's law, and was first stated by Estonian physicist
Heinrich Lenz (1804–1865).
• Lenz's law states that an induced current always flows in a
direction that opposes the change that caused it.
• Lenz's law is the reason for the negative sign in Faraday's law.
It indicates that the induced current opposes the change in
magnetic flux.

• To see how Lenz's law works, consider a bar

magnet that is moved toward a conducting loop,
as in figure (a) below.

• If the north pole of the magnet approaches the

loop, a current is induced that tends to oppose
the motion of the magnet. To be specific, the
current in the loop creates a north pole of a
magnet. This produces a repulsive force acting
on the magnet, opposing the motion.
• On the other hand, suppose the magnet is
pulled away from the loop, as in figure (b) on the
next slide. The induced current is in the opposite
direction, creating a south pole and a
corresponding attractive force—which again
opposes the motion.
• The following example serves to illustrate Lenz's law.

Assignment
• P. 806
• Questions 35-37
• P. 827
• Questions 7, 9-10

Chapter 22 Lecture
23-2: Electricity Pearson Physics

Generators and Motors
Objectives:
• Explain how an electric generator
operates.
• Explain how an electric motor
operates.

Electric Generators and Motors
• An electric generator is a device designed to convert
mechanical energy to electrical energy.
• The mechanical energy used to drive a generator can
come from many different sources. Examples include
falling water in a hydroelectric dam, expanding steam
in a coal-fired power plant, and a gasoline-powered
motor in a portable generator.
• All generators use the same basic operating
principle—mechanical energy moves a conductor
through a magnetic field to produce a motional emf.

• Rotating a wire loop or coil in a magnetic field to
change the magnetic flux allows the electromagnetic
induction process to continue indefinitely.
• Thus, rotating a coil of wire through a magnetic field is
a way to transfer energy from mechanical motion to an
electric emf and current.
• To see how this works, imagine a wire coil of area A
located in the magnetic field between the poles of a
magnet, as illustrated in the figure on the next slide.

• As mechanical work rotates the coil with an angular speed

ω, the emf produced in it is given by Faraday's law. In the
case of a rotating coil, it can be shown that Faraday's law
gives the following result:
ε = NBA sinωt
• A current-carrying loop in a magnetic field experiences a torque
that tends to make it rotate. If such a loop is mounted on an
axle, as shown in the figure below, the magnetic torque can be
used to operate machinery.
• This device converts electric energy to mechanical work. A

device that converts electric energy into mechanical energy is
called an electric motor.

• Instead of doing work to turn a coil and produce an

electric current, as in a generator, an electric motor
uses an electric current to produce rotation of a loop
or coil, which then does work.
• An electric motor transforms energy from electric emf
and current into mechanical motion. It follows that an
electric motor is basically an electric generator run in
reverse.

Chapter 22 Lecture
23-3: AC Circuits and Pearson Physics
Transformers
Objectives:
Recognize that both the voltage and
the current in an AC circuit have a
sinusoidal dependence.
Calculate the average power in an
AC circuit.
Explain how transformers can be
used to step up or step down the
voltage in an electrical system.
Relate the voltage and current in the
primary coil of a transformer to the
voltage and current in the secondary
coil.
AC Circuits and Transformers
• Electricity comes in two types—direct current and
alternating current. Each has benefits and drawbacks.
Alternating current is particularly useful in the home, in
part because it works so well with devices called
transformers that change the voltage.
• A simplified AC circuit diagram for a lamp is shown in
the figure on the next slide. The bulb is represented by
a resistor with equivalent resistance R and the wall
socket is shown as an AC generator, represented by a
circle enclosing one cycle of a sine wave.

• The voltage delivered by an AC generator is plotted in

figure (a) below.
• Notice that the graph has the shape of a sine curve. In

fact, the mathematical equation for the voltage is
V = Vmax sin ωt
• In household circuits, the angular frequency is
ω = 2πf, with f = 60 Hz. The maximum voltage, Vmax, is
the largest value of the voltage during a cycle.
• Because the voltage in an AC circuit depends on the
sine function, we say that it has a sinusoidal
dependence.
• The current in a resistor in an AC circuit is
I = Imax sinωt
• The value of the maximum current is given by Ohm's
law:
Imax = Vmax/R

• The average power in an AC circuit depends on

the root mean square values of the voltage and
current.
• Recall that the power dissipated in a resistor is
P = I 2R

• It is easy to forget that household electrical

circuits pose potential dangers to homes and
their occupants. Fortunately, there are many
devices available to ensure electrical safety.
• Fuses—In the case of a fuse, the current in a
circuit must flow through a thin metal strip
enclosed within the fuse. If the current exceeds
a predetermined amount (typically 15 A), the
metal strip becomes so hot that it melts and
breaks the circuit. Thus when a fuse "burns out,"
it is an indication that too many devices are
operating on that circuit.
• Circuit Breakers—Circuit breakers like the one in

figure (a) below provide protection in a way
similar to a fuse by means of a switch that
incorporates a bimetallic strip.

– When the bimetallic strip is cool, it closes the

switch, allowing current to flow. When the strip
is heated by a large current, however, it
bends enough to open the switch and the stop
the current. Unlike a fuse, which cannot be
used after it burns out, a circuit breaker can
be reset when the bimetallic strip cools and
returns to its original shape.

• Polarized Plugs—The first line of defense against

accidental shock is the polarized plug (see figure (b)
below), on which one prong is wider than the other prong.
– The corresponding wall socket will accept the plug in

only one orientation, with the wide prong in the wide
receptacle. The narrow receptacle of the outlet is wired
to the high-potential side of the circuit; the wide
receptacle is connected to the low-potential side, which
is essentially at ground potential.
– A polarized plug provides protection by ensuring

that the case of an electrical appliance, which is
connected to the wide prong, is at low potential.
– Furthermore, when an electrical device with a
polarized plug is turned off, the high potential
extends only from the wall outlet to the switch,
leaving the rest of the device at zero potential.

• Grounded Plugs—The next line of defense against

accidental shock is the three-prong grounded plug shown
in figure (c) below.
– In this plug, the rounded third plug is connected directly

to ground when plugged into a three-prong receptacle.
In addition, the third prong is wired to the case of an
electrical appliance.
– If something goes wrong within the appliance, and a

high-potential wire comes into contact with the case,
the resulting current flows through the third prong,
rather than through the body of a person who
happens to touch the case.
• GFCI Devices—A even greater level of protection is
provided by a device known as a ground fault circuit
interrupter (GFCI), shown in figure (d) below.

– The basic operating principle of an interrupter is

illustrated in the figure below.
– Notice that the wires carrying an AC current to the

protected appliance pass through a small iron ring.
When the appliance operates normally, the two wires
carry equal amounts of current in opposite directions—in
one wire the current goes to the appliance, and in the
other the current returns from the appliance.
– Each of the wires produces a magnetic field,

but because their currents are in opposite
directions, the magnetic fields are in opposite
directions as well. As a result, the magnetic
fields of the two wires cancel.
– If a malfunction occurs in the appliance— say
a wire frays and contacts the case—current
that would ordinarily return through the power
cord may pass through the user's body
instead and into the ground.

– In such a situation, the wire carrying current to

the appliance immediately produces a net
magnetic field within the iron ring that varies
with the frequency of the AC generator. The
changing magnetic field in the ring induces a
current in the sensing coil wrapped around
ring, and the induced current triggers a circuit
breaker in the interrupter. This cuts the flow of
current to the appliance within a millisecond,
protecting the user.

• It is often useful to change the voltage from one

value to another in an electrical system. For
example, high-voltage power lines may operate
at voltages as high as 750,000 V, but before the
electric power can be used in homes it must be
stepped down (lowered) to 120 V. In other
situations voltages need to be stepped up.
• The electrical device that changes the voltage in
an AC circuit is called a transformer.

• A simple transformer is shown in the figure below.
• Here an AC generator produces an alternating current in

the primary (p) circuit at the voltage Vp. The primary
circuit includes a coil with Np loops wrapped around an
iron core. The iron core intensifies and concentrates the
magnetic flux and ensures, at least to a good
approximation, that the secondary (s) coil experiences
the same magnetic flux as the primary coil.
Divide turns in secondary coil by number in the primary

Step down transformer: decreases voltage, but increases current
Step up transformer: Increases voltage, decreases current

• A transformer depends on a changing magnetic flux to

create an induced emf in the secondary coil. If the
current is constant—as in a DC circuit—there is no
induced emf, and the transformer ceases to function.
• This is an important advantage that AC circuits have
over DC circuits and one reason why most electrical
power systems operate with alternating current.
• Transformers play an important role in the transmission
of electrical energy from the power plants that produce it
to the communities and businesses where it is used.

• When electrical energy is transmitted over large

distances, the resistivity of the wires that carry the current
becomes significant. If a wire carries a current I and has a
resistance R, the power dissipated as heat is P = I 2R.
• One way to reduce this energy loss is to reduce the
current. A transformer that steps up the voltage of a
power plant by a factor of 20 will at the same time reduce
the current by a factor of 20, which reduces the power
dissipation by a factor of 202 = 400. When the electricity
reaches the location where it is to be used, step-down
transformers lower the voltage to a level such as 120 V
or 240 V.

Assignment
• P. 831
• Questions 20-23
• P. 840
• Questions 34-35, 37
• Vocabulary Quiz Tomorrow

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Chapter 22 Lecture

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Magnets and Magnetic Fields

© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

22-1: Magnets and Pearson Physics

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• Just as an electric charge creates an electric field, so

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• Similar effects are created by the magnet shown in the

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• The net effect of these strips is a magnetic field similar

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• A region within a magnetic material where the

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22-2: Magnetism and Pearson Physics

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• In addition to confirming the circular shape of the field

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• This rule is illustrated by the compass needles in the

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• As the figure indicates, to find the direction of the

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• In this equation, µ0, is a constant called the

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• Notice that one side of the loop behaves like a north

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• Notice that the result is independent of the cross-

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22-3: The Magnetic Force Pearson Physics