Rufo's METHODOLOGY

METHODS OF RESEARCH
Parts of a Research Paper

 Chapter 1- THE PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
 Introduction
 Review of Related Literature and Studies
 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework of the Study
 Statement of the Problem
 Significance of the Study
 Scope and Limitation of the Study
 Definition of Terms
Parts of a Research Paper
 CHAPTER 2 – METHODOLOGY
 Research Design
 Participants of the Study
 Instrumentation
 Data Gathering Procedure
 Data Analysis
 CHAPTER 3 – RESULT AND DISCUSSION
 [Headings are based on Research Questions]
 CHAPTER 4 – CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
 Summary of Findings
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
OBJECTIVES
 At the end of the session, the participant is expected to:
1. choose appropriate quantitative research design ;
2. differentiate between :
 Research method and research design;
 Population and sample;
 Probability and non-probability sampling;
3. present with accuracy written research
methodology ; and
4. describe sampling procedure and the sample .
DEEPENING IDEAS
Differences between:
Research design and Research method,

Population and Sample, and
Random and Non-random sampling
Research Methods
Research
Content Design Researchable
Area Questions
Sampling
Measurement Data
Methods Collection
Statistical
Analysis ? Report
Writing
Research Method (Labay, 2016)
 the generalized and established approach in tackling

the research problem
 focus on the step-by-step procedure of every research

process and how data will be gathered and analyzed
 answers the question “how” (it must to done? the data

be gathered?)
Factors to Consider in the Process of
Selecting the Method of Research
1. the method of research should be logically sound

2. the research method must be adequate for the
solution of the problem
3. the investigator must be able to give reasons for the
selection of the research method, and the reasons
must be clear and precise
4. the method of research chosen must be adequately
explained
5. the investigator must see to it that the research is free
from specific weaknesses in research methodology
Research Design
 The research design is the plan, structure, and

strategy of investigations of answering the research
question and is the overall plan or blueprint the
researchers select to carry out their study.
Choosing
RESEARCH
DESIGNS
QUANTITATIVE METHODS
OF RESEARCH
Descriptive Research Designs
 These are non-experimental designs that involve studying

populations or universes based on the data gathered from
a sample drawn from them. The data are often gathered
using self-report methods, such as a questionnaire
completed by the study subjects.
Descriptive Survey
 uses questionnaire or other instruments to generate data

prepared by the researcher
 purpose is to describe existing conditions, opinions, attitudes,

impressions, perceptions, and description trending.
 getting data or information from a variety of subjects taken

from a representative or probability sample or the population
 survey studies from the point of sampling is called sample

survey if the sample is used and census for the entire
population
Examples
Population census studies

Public Opinion surveys
Documentary Analysis
Test Score Analysis
Example
 Corporate Social Responsibility of Saint Paul University
Philippines
Disadvantages of survey researches
1. there is a possibility of low returns of questionnaire or

other instruments floated to generate data
2. there is a possibility that their assertions in the

questionnaire are not true or correct
3. there is a possibility that the instrument prepared by

the researcher maybe inadequate or insufficient to
gather data for the study.
Descriptive normative survey
 uses standardized instruments like mental ability test, stress and

personality questionnaire, morale and job satisfaction
standardized questionnaires and they have some established
norms.
Descriptive Correlational Survey
 It is designed to discover the direction and magnitude of

relationships among variables in a particular population of
subjects.
 concerned with determining the extent of relationship existing
between variables
 the extent of relationship is determined by the magnitude of
coefficients
 Pearson r
Example
• Mathematics Anxiety and Academic Performance of Selected Freshmen
Students of St. Paul University, School Year 2016 – 2017.
Descriptive Evaluative
 It judges the goodness of an existing

program
 It is directed to whether or not a program

achieved its goal
 Its purpose is to find out whether set

criterion were met or not; to provide
ongoing feedback to people who are
responsible for carrying out a plan or a
program or to evaluate the effectiveness
of the outcome of the plan or program.
Example
The Implementation of Spiral Approach in the Mathematics
Curriculum
The Implementation of 4 P’s in Enrile, Cagayan
20
Descriptive Comparative
 It is used to compare or contrast representative samples
from two or more groups of subjects in relation to certain
designated variables.
 compares the characteristics of groups according to some
selected variables since the main purpose is to determine
the difference without determining the cause
Example
A national survey of attitudes towards “professionalism” among
graduates of baccalaureate and associate degree programs.
Ex – Post facto Research Studies
- Same as causal comparative design.
- attempts to determine the possible reason or cause for

existing differences in the behavior of groups or individuals
- Falls under the category of comparative research.
22
Examples
Differences in hearing among smokers and nonsmokers.
23
Trends and Projective Studies
 used to project the demands that will be made in the

future
 regression equations are formed and the probable
behavior of a variable can be projected
Examples
• Forecasting Sales of Beverages in Tuguegarao City
• Determining Housing Projects by the Year 2019
Experimental Methods
of Research
Experimental Method
 A method that uses the single-variable approach in

problem-solving, whether the experiment is carried on in
the laboratory, classroom or field, i.e., all other factors are
kept constant except a single factor called the variable,
which is manipulated in various ways in order to
determine the results of its functions.
Matching Methods in an Experimental Design
1. person – to – person matching -

people are selected on the basis of
similar or identical personal
characteristics
2. matching groups – groups are paired

on a variable (ex. sex, age, etc)
3. ranking method – subjects for study are

ranked in some selected variables (ex.
achievement, socio – economic
variables, etc)
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
1. PRE TEST – POST TEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
 Experimental group
experimental treatment
Pre test Post test
 Control group
Pre test Post test

PRE TEST – POST TEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
 In this design, subjects have been designed randomly to the
experimental or control group
 The experimental treatment is given only to those in the

experimental group, and the pre tests and post tests are those
measurements of the dependent variables that are made before
and after the experimental treatment is performed.
 All true experimental designs have subjects randomly assigned

groups, have an experimental treatment introduced to some of the
subjects and have the effects of the treatment observed.
2. AFTER / POST TEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
Post test
 Control group
Post test
2. AFTER / POST TEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
 This design is sometimes called after only control group

design.
 This is composed on two randomly assigned groups, but
neither of which is pretested or premeasured in “the
before” period of time.
 The independent variable is introduced into the
experimental group and withheld from the control group.
3. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
 Experimental group I
Pre test Post test
 Control group I
Pre test Post test
 Experimental group II
Post test
 Control group II
Post test
SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
 This design employs two experimental groups and two control
groups. Initially, the investigator randomly assigns subjects to the
four groups. Those in the experimental group 1 are pretested
and are tested again after the treatment.
 Those in the experimental group 2 also receive the treatment but

are observed only after the treatment, but not before.
 Those in control group 1 are observed, on occasions 1 and 2, but

they are not given the experimental treatment.
 Those in control group 2 are observed only on the second

occasion without previous observation or treatment.
Pre – Experimental Design
- Pre-experimental designs are so named because they

follow basic experimental steps but fail to include a
control group. In other words, a single group is often
studied but no comparison between an equivalent non-
treatment group is made.
35
Pre – Experimental Design
Subdivisions:
- One shot case study/ single case study
- One group pretest – posttest design
- Static group comparison design
36
One shot case study/ single case study
• In single case study, that studies at once, following a
treatment or an agent presumed to cause change.
• Because the study design has a total absence of control, it
is considered to be little value as an experiment.
37
One group pretest – posttest design
Only one group is observed before and after the independent
variable is introduced.
38
Static group comparison design
• The static group that has experienced the independent

variable is compared with one that has not.
• Here the experimental group receives the independent
variable, but control group does not.
39
40
Quasi – Experimental
Research
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 It is one with full experimental control, usually
randomization, is not possible.
Subdivisions:
 Non equivalent control group design or the four celled design
without use of randomization
 The time series quasi experimental design
 The multiple time series design
1. Non equivalent control group design or the four celled design
without use of randomization
 Experimental group ( not randomly selected)

Pre test Post test
 Control group ( not randomly selected)
Pre test Post test

2. Time series experimental design
Pre test 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 post test 1
The time series experiment design, a single group experiment comprises of

series of observations in the before time period to establish a baseline. The
experimental variable is then introduced, followed by another series of
observation to examine the effect of the independent variable.
3. Multiple time series design
experimental matter
 Control group

Case Analysis [What’s my research design?]
A researcher wants to know why individuals in
Community A have a higher rate of a rare form of
cancer when compared to those living in Community B.
To find out the reasons or causes for the differences in
cancer rates in these two communities, the investigator
surveyed residents about their lifestyle, noted the types
of businesses that were present in the community and
searched medical records.
 An investigator wants to evaluate whether a new technique
to teach math to elementary school students is more effective
than the standard teaching method. the investigator divides
the class randomly (by chance) into two groups and calls
them "Group A" and "Group B." The students cannot choose
their own group. The random assignment process results in two
groups that should share equal characteristics at the
beginning of the experiment. In Group A, the teacher uses a
new teaching method to teach the math lesson. In Group B,
the teacher uses a standard teaching method to teach the
math lesson. The investigator compares test scores at the end
of the semester to evaluate the success of the new teaching
method compared to the standard teaching method.
 A fitness instructor wants to test the effectiveness of a

performance-enhancing herbal supplement on students in
her exercise class. To create experimental groups that are
similar at the beginning of the study, the students are
assigned into two groups at random (they can not choose
which group they are in). Students in both groups are given a
pill to take every day, but they do not know whether the pill
is a placebo (sugar pill) or the herbal supplement. The
instructor gives Group A the herbal supplement and Group B
receives the placebo (sugar pill). The students' fitness level is
compared before and after six weeks of consuming the
supplement or the sugar pill.
Population and Sample [Talisayon, 2017]
 Sample – a group
from which you
collect data;
representative or
typical of a
population
 Population – group to
which sample results
will be generalized
BASIC CONCEPTS IN SAMPLING
AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
 The process which involves taking a part of a population,
making observation on this representatives and the
generalizing the findings to the bigger population (Zulueta
and Costales, 2003).
TEACHING BASIC STATISTICS ….
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
Sample
Sampling Data
Process
Inferences/Generalization
(Subject to Uncertainty)
Universe
Session 3.52
Basic Terms
SAMPLING – the process of selecting a sample
PARAMETER – descriptive measure of the population
STATISTIC – descriptive measure of the sample
INFERENTIAL STATISTICS – concerned with making generalizations about parameters using statistics
SAMPLING ERROR – error attributed to the variation present from one sample to another when we take
measurements from only n elements in the sample instead of a census of all N elements of the physical
population.
NON-SAMPLING ERROR – error from other sources apart from sampling fluctuations, namely, measurement errors
and errors in the implementation of the sampling design
Session 3.53
WHY DO WE USE SAMPLES?

1. Reduced Cost
2. Greater Speed or Timeliness
3. Greater Scope
4. Convenience
Session 3.54
TWO TYPES OF SAMPLES
1. Probability sample
2. Non-probability sample
Session 3.55
 Probability sampling – A method of sampling that utilizes
some form of random selection. In order to have a
random selection method, you must set up some
process or procedure that assures that the different units
in your population have equal probabilities of being
chosen.
PROBABILITY SAMPLES
Samples are obtained using some objective

chance mechanism, thus involving
randomization.
They require the use of a sampling frame (a
list/map of all the sampling units in the
population).
Session 3.57
PROBABILITY SAMPLES
The probabilities of selection are known.
They are generally referred to as a random sample from a finite

population.
They allow drawing of (valid) generalizations about the

universe/population whose sampling error can be ascertained.
Session 3.58
 Non – Probability sampling – A sampling technique
where the samples are gathered in a process that does
not give all the individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLES
Samples are obtained haphazardly,

selected purposively or are taken as
volunteers.
The probabilities of selection are unknown.
Session 3.60
BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Simple Random Sampling

Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multi – Stage Sampling Slide No. 3.20
Session 3.61
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Most basic method of drawing a probability

sample
Assigns equal probabilities of selection to each
possible sample
Session 3.62
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
– the best-known and most widely used probability sample. It is a

method of selecting a sample from a universe such that each
member of the population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample.
 Lottery method
 Fish – bowl technique
 table of random numbers
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
The universe is divided into L mutually

exclusive sub-universes called strata.
Independent simple random samples are
obtained from each stratum.
Session 3.64
Stratified Random Sampling
 A stratum is defined as a sub – population and a strata

consists of two or more homogeneous population.
Steps:
1. construct the population of the participants and
determine the relevant strata.
2. Select the number using either proportional or equal
allocation
3. Choose the participants within each category
according to simple random sampling methods
ILLUSTRATION
B B
C
D
Slide No. 3.13
Session 3.66
Determining Adequate Sample
Size
Sampling Formula (Slovin’s)
N
n = -----------
1 + e N2
Where n = sample size

N = population size
e = margin of error
Example for Slovin’s Formula
If N = 3000 and e = .05, then n is
3000
n = -------------------
1 + (.05)2(3000)
n = 3000/8.5 = 352.94 = 353

Strata/Department Number of Number of samples
respondents
Surgery 800 94
Medical 500 59
Pedia 1000 118
Obygyney 700 82
Total 3000 353

Advantages of Stratification
1. It gives a better cross-section of the population.

2. It simplifies the administration of the survey/data gathering.
3. It allows one to draw inferences for various subdivisions of the population.
Session 3.71
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Adopts a skipping pattern in the selection of sample units
Gives a better cross-section if the listing is linear in trend
but has high risk of bias if there is periodicity in the listing
of units in the sampling frame
Allows the simultaneous listing and selection of samples
in one operation
Session 3.72
ILLUSTRATION
Systematic Sample
Population
Session 3.73
Cluster Sampling
 used when large scale – survey is undertaken. Groups
are chosen and not individuals.
 Homogeneity is considered.
CLUSTER SAMPLING
It considers a universe divided into N mutually exclusive
sub-groups called clusters.
A random sample of n clusters is selected and their
elements are completely enumerated.
It has simpler frame requirements. Slide No. 3.19
It is administratively convenient to implement.
Slide No. 3.11
Session 3.75
ILLUSTRATION
Population
Cluster Sample
Slide No. 3.18

Session 3.76
Multi – Stage Sampling

– a method which is rarely used because of the
complexity of its strategy and it incurs a lot of effort, time
and expense.
MULTI - STAGE SAMPLING
In the first stage, the units are grouped into N sub-groups, called
primary sampling units (psu’s) and a simple random sample of n
psu’s are selected.
Illustration: 


 A PRIMARY SAMPLING UNIT
Session 3.78
In the second stage, from each of the n psu’s selected with Mi

elements, simple random sample of mi units, called secondary
sampling units ssu’s, will be obtained.
Illustration:
A SECONDARY SAMPLING UNIT
SAMPLE
Session 3.79
Types Non - Probability Sampling
Convenience sampling -used based on the convenience of

the researcher. This strategy allows the use of any
available group for the research activity
Example: To investigate the most popular noon time TV
program using telephone interview.
80
Purposive/judgemental sampling –sometimes called
deliberate sampling.The researcher relies on his judgment
as the criterion for the selection and does not use the
rules governing sampling techniques .
Example. To investigate the history of a certain place.
To investigate the effectiveness of a certain
shampoo.
81
Quota sampling – used for infinite population frames and
therefore, the researcher cannot get a random sample.
Like purposive sample, this is not a representative
sample.
Example: To investigate the DIP learning in SPUP. The
researcher will select say 50 participants in each
school/department as a quota.
82
Revisiting the Problem
 What is the research design?
 DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY
 How will data be gathered?

 QUESTIONNAIRE
Revisiting the Problem – [Writing the Research Design]
Chapter 2 – METHODOLOGY
 Research Design
This study will utilize the quantitative research approach,
specifically, the descriptive survey. The study will aim to
describe and discuss the extent to which the Grade 11
students experienced problems in the implementation of
the K to 12 Curriculum along the areas of instructional
facility and materials, curriculum and academic
concerns. The respondents will be asked to answer a
researcher-made questionnaire constructed by the
researchers.
Revisiting the Problem – [Writing the Sample and Sampling Technique]
Chapter 2 – METHODOLOGY
 Sample and Sampling Technique

The respondents of the study will be senior high school
students currently enrolled in School X for the First
Quarter of academic year 2017-2018. The Slovin’s
Formula will be used to determine the appropriate
sample size. Furthermore, the respondents will be
selected through stratified random sampling.
Write them down (Writeshop)
 Title
 Statement of the Problem.
 Research design
 Sample and sampling technique
 Instrumentation
 Data Analysis
PONDER ON THIS:
FRIENDLY REMINDER
 REMEMBER: Start Small . . . No matter how
grandly you're planning.
 Great things always come from small

beginnings!

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METHODS OF RESEARCH

Parts of a Research Paper

Research design and Research method,

 the generalized and established approach in tackling

 focus on the step-by-step procedure of every research

 answers the question “how” (it must to done? the data

1. the method of research should be logically sound

 The research design is the plan, structure, and

 These are non-experimental designs that involve studying

 uses questionnaire or other instruments to generate data

 purpose is to describe existing conditions, opinions, attitudes,

 getting data or information from a variety of subjects taken

 survey studies from the point of sampling is called sample

Population census studies

1. there is a possibility of low returns of questionnaire or

2. there is a possibility that their assertions in the

3. there is a possibility that the instrument prepared by

 uses standardized instruments like mental ability test, stress and

 It is designed to discover the direction and magnitude of

 It judges the goodness of an existing

 It is directed to whether or not a program

 Its purpose is to find out whether set

The Implementation of 4 P’s in Enrile, Cagayan

- attempts to determine the possible reason or cause for

- Falls under the category of comparative research.

 used to project the demands that will be made in the

 A method that uses the single-variable approach in

1. person – to – person matching -

2. matching groups – groups are paired

3. ranking method – subjects for study are

Pre test Post test

Pre test Post test

 The experimental treatment is given only to those in the

 All true experimental designs have subjects randomly assigned

 This design is sometimes called after only control group

Pre test Post test

Pre test Post test

 Those in the experimental group 2 also receive the treatment but

 Those in control group 1 are observed, on occasions 1 and 2, but

 Those in control group 2 are observed only on the second

- Pre-experimental designs are so named because they

• The static group that has experienced the independent

 Experimental group ( not randomly selected)

Pre test Post test

 Control group ( not randomly selected)

Pre test Post test

Pre test 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 post test 1

The time series experiment design, a single group experiment comprises of

Pre test 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 post test 1

 A fitness instructor wants to test the effectiveness of a

WHY DO WE USE SAMPLES?

TWO TYPES OF SAMPLES

Samples are obtained using some objective

The probabilities of selection are known.

They are generally referred to as a random sample from a finite

They allow drawing of (valid) generalizations about the

Samples are obtained haphazardly,

BASIC SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Simple Random Sampling

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

Most basic method of drawing a probability

Simple Random Sampling

– the best-known and most widely used probability sample. It is a