CHAPTER 1

Transformer
School of Computer and Communication
Engineering,
UniMAP
Prepared By:
Amir Razif A. b. Jamil Abdullah
EMT 113: V-2008 1
1.0 Transformer.
1.1 Introduction to Transformer.
1.2 Applications of Transformer.
1.3 Types and Constructions of Transformers.
1.4 General Theory of Transformer Operation.
1.5 Ideal Transformer.
1.6 Real Single-Phase Transformer.
1.7 Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer.
1.8 Approximate Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer.
1.9 Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency.
1.10 Open Circuit and Short Circuit.
1.11 Three Phase Transformer.

2
1.1 Introduction to Transformer.
What is Transformer ?
 Transformer is a device that changes ac electrical power at one
voltage level to ac electric power at another voltage level through
the action of magnetic field.
 Figure 1.1 is the block diagrams of;
(a) Transformer.
(b) Electric motor.
(c) Generator.

Figure 1.1: Block Diagrams of

Transformer, an Electric Motor and
a Generator..
3
Cont’d…

Figure 1.1a: A 500 MVA Power Transformer. (left)

A Pole-Mount 15 kVA Distribution Transformer. (right) (Courtesy of ABB)
4
1.2 Application of Transformer.
Why do we need transformer for ?
(a) Step Up.
 Step up transformer, it will decrease the current to keep the
power into the device equal to the power out of it.
 In modern power system, electrical power is generated at voltage
of 12kV to 25kV. Transformer will step up the voltage to between
110kV to 1000kV for transmission over long distance at very low
lost.
 - Unit transformer.
(b) Step Down.
 The transformer will stepped down the voltage to the 12kV to
34.5kV range for local distribution in the homes, offices and
factories as low as 120V (America) and 240V (Malaysia).
 - Substation transformer.
5
 – distribution transformer.
1.3 Types and Construction of
Transformer.
 Power transformers are constructed on two types of cores;
(i) Core form.
(ii) Shell form.

A) Core type B) Shell type

Figure 1.2: Core Form and Shell Form.

6
Cont’d…
Core Form.
 The core form construction consists of a simple rectangular
laminated piece of steel with the transform winding wrapped
around the two sides of the rectangle.

Shell Form.
A) Core type B) Shell type

 The shell form construction consists of a three-legged laminated

core with the winding wrapped around the center leg.
 In both cases the core is constructed of thin laminations
electrically isolated from each other in order to minimize eddy
current.
 The coils are usually not directly connected.
 The common magnetic flux present within the coils connects the
7
coils.
Cont’d…

Figure 1.3: A Simple Transformer.

Construction.
 Transformer consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped
around a common ferromagnetic core. The coils are usually not
directly connected.
 The common magnetic flux present within the coils connects the
coils.
 There are two windings;
(i) Primary winding (input winding); the winding that is
connected to the power source.
(ii) Secondary winding (output winding); the winding connected
to the loads. 8
Cont’d…
Operation.
 When AC voltage is applied to the primary winding of the
transformer, an AC current will result i1 or i2 (current at load).
 The AC primary current i1 set up time varying magnetic flux f in
the core. The flux links the secondary winding of the transformer.
 From the Faraday law, the emf will be induced in the secondary
winding. This is known as transformer action.
 The current i2 will flow in the secondary winding and electric
power will be transfer to the load.
 The direction of the current in the secondary winding is
determined by Len’z law. The secondary current’s direction is such
that the flux produced by this current opposes the change in the
original flux with respect to time.

9
1.4 General Theory of Transformer
Operation.
 According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
electromagnetic force (emf ’s) are induced in N1 and N2 due to a
time rate of change of fM,
Where, d d e1  N 1 d ; e 2  N 2 d
(1.1) e   dt   N dt dt dt
e = instantaneous voltage induced by magnetic field (emf),
 = number of flux linkages between the magnetic field and the
electric circuit.
f = effective flux
Figure 1.4: Basic Transformer
Components.

Lenz’s Law states that the direction of e1 is such to produce a current

that opposes the flux changes. 10
Cont’d…
 If the winding resistance is neglected, then equation (1.1) become;

v e N d d 
1 1 1( );
dt v 2  e2  N 2( ) (1.2)
dt
 Taking the voltage ratio in equation (1.2) results in,
N 1 e1

N 2 e2 (1.3)
 Neglecting losses means that the instantaneous power is the same
on both sides of the transformer;
e1i1  e 2i 2 (1.4)
 Combining all the above equation we get the equation (1.5) where
a is the turn ratio of the transformer.
N 1 v1 i 2
a  
N 2 v 2 i1 (1.5)11
Cont’d…

 The flux varies sinusoidally such that;

 = max sin t

m
ax

 The rms value of the induce voltage is;

d d
eN  N ( max sin 2ft )
dt dt

N max
E  4.44 fN max
2

12
Cont’d…

 Losses are composed of two parts;

(a) The Eddy-Current lost.
(b) The Hysteresis loss.

 Eddy current lost is basically loss due

to the induced current in the magnetic
material. To reduce this lost, the
magnetic circuit is usually made of a
stack of thin laminations. Figure 1.5: A Magnetic Hysteresis
 Hysteresis lost is caused by the or B-H Curve of Core Steel.
energy used in orienting the magnetic
domains of the material along the field.
The lost depends on the material used.

13
Example 1.1: Transformer.
How many turns must the primary and the secondary windings of a
220 V-110 V, 60 Hz ideal transformer have if the core flux is not
allowed to exceed 5mWb?
Solution:
For an ideal transformer with no losses,

E1  V1  220V
From the emf equation, we have E 2  V2  110V

E1
N1 
4.11 * f *  max
220
 3
 166turns.
(4.11)(60)(5 X 10 )
110
N2  3
 83turns.
(4.11)(60)(5 X 10 )
14
.
1.5 The Ideal Transformer.
 An Ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding
and an output winding.
 Zero resistance result in zero voltage drops between the
terminal voltages and induced voltages
 Figure 1.6 shows the relationship of input voltage and output
voltage of the ideal transformer.

Figure 1.6: An Ideal Transformer and the Schematic Symbols. 15

Cont’d…

 The relationship between voltage and the number of turns.

Np , number of turns of wire on its primary side.
Ns , number of turns of wire on its secondary side.
Vp(t), voltage applied to the primary side.
Vs(t), voltage applied to the secondary side.

v p (t ) Np
 a
v s (t ) Ns
 where a is defined to be the turns ratio of the transformer.16
Cont’d…
 The relationship between current into the primary side, Ip(t), of
transformer versus the secondary side, Is(t), of the transformer;
N p I p (t )  N s I s (t )

I p (t ) 1

I s (t ) a
 In term of phasor quantities;
-Note that Vp and Vs are in the same phase angle. Ip and Is are in
the same phase angle too.
- the turn ratio, a, of the ideal transformer affects the magnitude
only but not the their angle.
Vp Ip 1
a 
Vs Is a
17
Cont’d…
 The dot convention appearing at one end of each winding tell
the polarity of the voltage and current on the secondary side of
the transformer.
 If the primary voltage is positive at the dotted end of the
winding with respect to the undotted end, then the secondary
voltage will be positive at the dotted end also. Voltage polarities
are the same with respect to the doted on each side of the core.
 If the primary current of the transformer flow into the
dotted end of the primary winding, the secondary current will
flow out of the dotted end of the secondary winding.

18
1.5.1 Power in an Ideal
Transformer.
 Power supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit is
given by ;
Pin  V p I p cos q p
where, qp is the angle between the primary voltage and the
primary current.
 The power supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its
loads is given by the equation;

Pout  Vs I s cos q s
where, qs is the angle between the secondary voltage and the
secondary current.
 Voltage and current angles are unaffected by an ideal transformer,
qp – qs = q. The primary and secondary windings of an ideal
19
transformer have the same power factor.
Cont’d…
 The power out of a transformer; Pout  Vs I s cos q
- apply Vs= Vp/a and Is= aIp into the above equation gives,
Vp
Pout  (aI p ) cos q
a
Pout  V p I p cos q  Pin
* The output power of an ideal transformer is equal to the input
power.
 The reactive power, Q, and the apparent power, S;
 In term of phasor quantities;
-Vp and Vs are in the same phase angle. Ip and Is are in the same
phase angle too.
Qin  V p I p sin q  Vs I s sin q  Qout
S in  V p I p  Vs I s  S out
- the turn ratio, a, of the ideal transformer affects the magnitude
20
only but not the their angle.
Example 1.2: Ideal Transformer.
Consider an ideal, single-phase 2400V-240V transformer. The primary
is connected to a 2200V source and the secondary is connected to an
impedance of 2 W < 36.9o, find,
(a) The secondary output current and voltage.
(b) The primary input current.
© The load impedance as seen from the primary side.
(d) The input and output apparent power.
(e) The output power factor.
Solution:
(a) The ratio of rated terminal
voltage equal to the actual
turns-ratio as;

21
Cont’d…

.

22
1.6 Real Single-Phase Transformer.
 The ideal transformer in Section 1.5 can never been made. The
real transformer has many imperfections.
 The real transformers consists of two or more coils of wire
physically wrapped around the ferromagnetic core. The real
transformer approximate the characteristic of the ideal
transformer.
 Operation if the real transformer;
(i) It consists of two coils of wire wrapped around a transformer
core.
(ii) The primary of the transformer is connected to an ac power
source, and the secondary winding is an open-circuited.
(iii) Figure 1.5 is the hysteresis of the transformer. d
(iv) Basic operation from the faraday law, eind 
dt
23
Cont’d…

  is the flux linkage in the coil across which the voltage is being
induced.
 The sum of the flux passing through each turn in the coil added
over all the turns of the coil is;
N
   i
i 1

 The average flux per turns is given by ;


 
N
 And Faraday’s law can be written as ,

d
eind N
dt 24
1.7 Exact Equivalent Circuit of
Real Transformer.
 Copper losses are resistive loses in the primary and the
secondary windings of the transformer core. They are
proportional to the square of the current in the windings.
 Copper losses are modeled by placing a resistor Rp in the primary
circuit of the transformer and a resistor Rs in the secondary
circuit.
 The leakage flux in the primary windings is,
di p
e LP (t )  L p
dt
di
e LS (t )  Ls s
dt
 Figure 1.7 is an exact model of a real transformer. To analyze the
transformer it is necessary to convert the entire circuit to an
equivalent circuit at a single voltage level as in Figure 1.8.
25
Cont’d…

Figure 1.7: Model of a Real Transformer.

26
Cont’d…

Figure 1.8: (a) The Transformer Model Referred to its Primary Windings (top).
(b) The Transformer Model Referred to its Secondary Voltage Level (bottom).
27
Cont’d…

 Symbols used for the Exact Equivalent Circuit above;

28
Cont’d…
 The major use of the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer is to
determine the characteristics such as voltage regulation and
efficiency.
 A phasor diagram for the circuit of Figure 1.8, for lagging power
factor can be obtained by using the following equations:

Not Covered
 Based on the above equations and assuming a zero degree
reference angle for V2, the phasor diagram is shown in Figure 1.9
for the exact equivalent circuit model of a transformer.

Figure 1.9: RMS Phasor Diagram for the

Exact Equivalent Circuit Model of a
Transformer.
29
1.8 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
of Real Transformer.
 In the Approximate model ,the voltage drop in Rp and Xp is
negligible because the current is very small. Figure 1.10 is the
Approximate equivalent circuit referred to the primary side.

R p  R1

30
Figure 1.10: Approximate Transformer Model Referred to the Primary Side.
Cont’d…
 The voltage in the primary series impedance (r1 + jx1) is small,
even at full load. Also, the no load current (I0) is so small that its
effect on the voltage drop in the primary series impedance is
negligible.
 Therefore, it matters little if the shunt branch of Rc in parallel with
Xm is connected before the primary series impedance or after it.
The core loss and magnetizing currents are not greatly affected by
the move.
 Connecting the shunt components right at the input terminals has
the great advantage of permitting the two series impedance to be
combined into one complex impedance.
 The equivalent impedance for the circuit in Figure 1.11 is;

31
Cont’d…
 The value of this equivalent impedance of a particular
transformer depends on whether the model used is referred to the
primary or secondary.

Figure 1.11: Approximate Circuit Model of a Transformer Referred to the

Secondary.

 The equivalent impedance for the circuit in Figure 1.11 is;

32
1.9 Transformer Voltage
Regulation and Efficiency.
 Voltage regulation is a measure of the change in the terminal
voltage of the transformer with respect to loading. Therefore the
voltage regulation is defined as: V V
VR   100%
s , nl s , fl

Vs , fl

 At no load, Vs = Vp/a and the voltage regulation can also be

express as; Vp
V s , fl
VR  a  100%
Vs , fl
 In the per-unit system;
V p , pu  Vs , fl , pu
VR   100%
Vs , f , pul
 For ideal transformer VR = 0. It is a good practice to have as
small voltage regulator as possible. 33
Cont’d…

34
Figure 1.12: Example of Transformer Voltage Regulation.
Cont’d…
 Transformer Efficiency, efficiency of a transformer is
defined as follows;
Output Power P2
 
Input Power P1
 For Non-Ideal transformer, the output power is less than the
input power because of losses. These losses are the winding or
I2R loss (copper losses) and the core loss (hysteresis and eddy-
current losses).
 In term of the total losses, Plosses, the above equation may be
expressed as;
P1  P1\losses P2 P2
  
P1 P2  Plosses P2  Pcopper  Pcore
 The winding or copper loss is load dependent, whereas the core
loss is constant and almost independent of the load on the
transformer. 35
Cont’d…
 The efficiency can also be obtained by using the per-unit system.

36
Example 1.3: Transformer Voltage Regulation.
A 10 kVA, 2400V/240V, single-phase transformer has the following
resistance and leakage reactances: r1=30 W, x1=15 W, r2=0.03 W,
x2 = 0.15 W
Use the approximate circuit model to find the voltage regulation
when the load power factor is; a) 0.8 lagging and b) 0.8 leading
Solution:

37
Solution:

38
1.10 Open Circuit and Short
Circuit.
Open Circuit Test.
 The open circuit test is conducted by applying rated voltage
at rated frequency to one of the windings, with the other
windings open circuited. The input power and current are
measured, Figure 1.13 .
 For reasons of safety and convenience, the measurements are
made on the low-voltage (LV) side of the transformer.

39
Cont’d…

Figure 1.13: Equivalent Circuit of the Open-Circuit Test.

 The high voltage (HV) side is open, the input current is equal to the no
load current or exciting current (I0), and is quite small.
 The voltage drops in the primary leakage reactance and winding
resistance may be neglected and so may the primary loss (I12r1).
 The input power is almost equal to the core loss at rated voltage and
frequency.
40
Cont’d…

 qoc is the angle by which Io_LV lags Voc. The core loss current, Ic
is in phase with Voc while Im lags Voc by 90°. Then;

 The core-loss current, Ic, may be found from above equation, then
Rc_LV may be calculated by the equation below,

 The magnetization current Im is given by the above equation or

may be found from Ioc and Ic using
41
Cont’d…
Short Circuit Test.
 The short-circuit test is used to determine the equivalent series
resistance and reactance.
 One winding is shorted at its terminals, and the other winding is
connected through proper meters to a variable, low-voltage, high-
current source of rated frequency, Figure 1.14.
 The source voltage is increased until the current into the
transformer reaches rated value. To avoid unnecessary high
currents, the short-circuit measurements are made on the high-
voltage side of the transformer.

42
Cont’d…

Figure 1.14: Equivalent Circuit of the Short-Circuit Test.

 Neglecting I0, the input power during this test is consumed in the
equivalent resistance referred to the primary or high-voltage side,
Req_HV. Then

43
1.11 Three Phase Transformer.
 Almost all the major power generation and distribution systems in
the world today are three-phase ac system.
 Two ways of constructing transformer of three-phase circuit;
(i) Three single phase transformers are connected in three-phase
bank.
(ii) Make a three-phased transformer consisting of three sets of
windings wrapped on a common core.
 The three-phased transformer on a common core (ii) is preferred
because it is lighter, smaller, cheaper and slightly more efficient.

44
1.11.1 Three-Phase Transformer
Connections.
 A three-phase transformer consists of three transformers either
separate or combined on one core.
 There are four possible connections between the secondary and
primary of a three-phase transformer.
(1) Wye-Wye (Y-Y).
(2) Wye-Delta (Y-D).
(3) Delta-Wye (D-Y).
(4) Delta-Delta (D -D).
 Figure 1.15 are these four possible transformer connections.

45
Cont’d…

46
Figure 1.15: Three-Phase Transformer Connections and Wiring Diagram.
Cont’d…
(1) Wye-Wye Connection.
VLP
a Y Y
VLS
(2) Wye-Delta Connection.
 A three-phase transformer consists of three transformers either
separate or combined on one core.
VLP
 3a Y 
VLS
(3) Delta-Wye Connection.
VLP 3
  Y
VLS a

(4) Delta-Delta Connection.

VLP VP
 a 
VLS VS
47
Example 1.4: Three Phase
Transformer.
What should be the ratings (voltages
and currents) and turns ratio of a
three-phase transformer to transform
10 MVA from 230 kV to 4160 V, if
the transformer is to be connected:
a) wye-delta, b) delta-wye, and
c) delta-delta?

Solution:
For both delta and wye connections,
the line currents can be obtained as:

.
48
Example 1.5: Voltage Regulation at Full Load.

A 7200V/208V, 50kVA, three-phase distribution transformer is

connected delta-wye. The transformer has 1.2% resistance and 5%
reactance.
Find the voltage regulation at full load, 0.8 power factor lagging.
Solution:

49
50
Voltage Regulation.

. 51
Example 1.6: Transformer Efficiency.
If the core loss of the transformer in Example 7 is 1kW, find the
efficiency of this transformer at full load and 0.8 power factor.

Solution:

. 52
 Assignment #1
Due :
1. A transformer has the following parameters;
N1= 1000, N2 = 10, I1=200A, V1 = 100kV
a) Determine I2 and V2
b) Which type of transformer is this?
2. From Example 4, Draw and label the current and voltage of the
Y-Y, Y-Delta and Delta-Delta connection transformer.
3. The parameter of the equivalent circuit of a 150-kVA,
2400V/240V transformer, shown in Figure 1.7, are R1=0.2 W,
R2=2 mW, X1=4.5 mW, Rc=10 KW, and Xm=1.55 KW. Using the
circuit referred to the primary, determine the;
(a) Voltage Regulation,
(b) Efficiency of the transformer operating at rated load 0.8
lagging power factor.
Note: Assume the transformer is ideal for all cases
53