HUMAN

BEHAVIOR IN
ORGANIZATION
 WHAT IS HUMAN
BEHAVIOR
Human Behavior refers to the physical actions
of a person that can be seen or heard. With his
thoughts, feelings emotions or sentiments the
person exhibits behaviors similar or different
when he is in or out of organizations.
AN OVERVIEW OF
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
IN ORGANIZATIOS
 WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR
Organizational Behavior or OB may
be defined as the study of human
behavior in organization, of the
interaction between individuals and
the organization and of the
organization itself.
 With his
THE Thoughts ,
Feelings,
PERSON Emotions,
Sentiments

BEHAVIO
R

IN THE
ORGANIZATION OUT OF
THE
THE PLACES WHERE THE PERSON ORGANI
ZATION
EXHIBITS HIS BEHAVIORS
 THE GOALS OF OB
• To explain behavior
Systematically describe how people behave under a
variety of conditions and understand why people
behave as they do.
• To predict behavior
OB must be used to predict behavior so support
can be provided to productive and dedicated
employees,and measures could be instituted to
control the disruptive and less productive ones.
• To control behavior
As control is an important component of
effective performance
THE ELEMENTS OF
OB
• People
• Structure
• Technology
• Environment
THE BENEFITS OF STUDYING
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
• Development of people skills
• Personal growth
• Enhancement of organizational
and individual effectiveness
• Sharpening and refinement of
common sense
Development of People
Skills

Two types of skills that a person

will need to succeed in his
chosen career :
1.The skills in doing his work
2.The skills in relating with
people
 A BRIEF HISTORY OF
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

1. The Human Relation Approach

a. The Scientific Management Approach by
Frederick W. Taylor.
b. The Human Relation Approach by Elton Mayo and
others
2. The Personality Theories
a. Freud’s Model
b. The Behaviorist Approach by Watson and Skinner
c. The Humanist Approach by Carl Rogers,
Fritz Perls, and Abraham Maslow
 FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR
• He started the Scientific Management movement, and he
and his associates were the first people to study the work
process scientifically. They studied how work was performed,
and they looked at how this affected worker productivity.
Taylor's philosophy focused on the belief that making people
work as hard as they could was not as efficient as optimizing
the way the work was done.

• In 1909, Taylor published "The Principles of Scientific

Management." In this, he proposed that by optimizing
and simplifying jobs, productivity would increase. He also
advanced the idea that workers and managers needed to
cooperate with one another.

https://www.mindtools.com
• Taylor believed that all workers were motivated by
money, so he promoted the idea of "a fair day's pay
for a fair day's work." In other words, if a worker
didn't achieve enough in a day, he didn't deserve to
be paid as much as another worker who was highly
productive.( https://www.mindtools.com)
 ELTON MAYO
• Elton Mayo and his research team
conducted the Hawthorne Studies in
1920 to determine what effect hours of
work,periods of rests and lightings might
have on worker fatigue and productivity.
• Mayo concluded that social interaction
is a factor for increased productivity
• The Hawthorne Studies were developed as a human
relations movement in organizational management to
identify strengths and competencies in workers and to
better manage, measure, develop, and improve worker
capabilities (Baack, 2012). The primary focus of
the Hawthorne Study was centered on an individual in the
work place. (https://mayrsom.com/2012/12/24/organizational-behavior-analysis-of-
the-hawthorne-studies/)

• The Hawthorne Study focused on the alteration of

employee conditions. It concluded subjects were more
productive when experiencing enjoyable conditions and
positive interactions. Employees that had fun at work and
were not called out for poor for performance had less stress
and were inclined to form cohesive groups that remained
loyal to the firm. (https://mayrsom.com/2012/12/24/organizational-behavior-
analysis-of-the-hawthorne-studies/)
SIGMUND FREUD
Who brought the idea that people are motivated by far more
than conscious logical reasoning.Freud believed that irrational
motives make up the hidden subconscious mind which
determines the major part of people’s behavior

John B. Watson formulated the theory about learned

behavior. This theory indicates that a person can be trained to
behave according to the wish of the trainer.

BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER extended Watson’s Theory with

his own theory of behavior modification.Skinner concluded
that when people receive a positive stimulus like money or
praise for what they have done they will tend to repeat their
behavior.When they are ignored and receive no response to
the action ,they will not be inclined to repeat it.
Carl Rogers
• believes that people should acquire their own values and
attitudes rather than be committed to a fixed set of prescribed
goals.
• Rogers believed that all behavior is motivated by self-
actualizing tendencies, which drive a person to achieve at
their highest level. As a result of their interactions with the
environment and others, an individual forms a structure of
the self or self-concept—an organized, fluid, conceptual
pattern of concepts and values related to the self. If a person
has a positive self-concept, they tend to feel good about
who they are and often see the world as a safe and positive
place. If they have a negative self-concept, they may feel
unhappy with who they are. (https://www.boundless.com)
FRITZ PERL
His contribution is the Gestalt psychology wherein the person is
seen as being plagued by numerous split or conflicting desires
and needs, which dissipate energy and interfere with that
person’s ability to achieve his potential. The object of Gestalt
psychology is to integrate conflicting needs into an organized
whole, in which all parts of a person work together towards
growth and development
 ABRAHAM MASLOW
• Maslow stated that people are motivated to
achieve certain needs and that some needs take
precedence over others. Our most basic need is
for physical survival, and this will be the first thing
that motivates our behaviour. Once that level is
fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us,
and so on. (https://www.simplypsychology.org)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 What is Ethics
Ethics refers to the set of moral choices a person
makes based on what he or she ought to do.

Organizational Ethics These are moral

principles that define
right or wrong behavior in organizations.

Ethical Behavior This refers to behavior that is

accepted as morally good and right as opposed to
bad and wrong.
What constitute right and wrong
behavior in organization is determined
by :
1. the public
2. interest groups
3.organizations
4. the individual’s personal morals
and values.
 ETHICAL ISSUES

1.Conflict of interest
2.Fairness and Honesty
3.Communication
4.Relationship within the organization
Conflict of Interest
exist when a person is in the position of having decide
whether to advance the interest of the organization
or to operate in his or her own personal interests .

Fairness and Honesty

Ethical behavior demands that, beyond obeying the
law,they should not knowingly harm customers, clients
and competitors through deception, coercion or
misrepresentation.
Communication
People can become victims of
organizations that provide false a
nd misleading information about their
products and services.
 INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES,MENTAL
ABILITY,AND
PERSONALITY
Individual Differences refer to the
variation in how people respond to
the same situation based on
personal characteristics. The idea is
that each person is different from all
others and that these differences
are substantial rather than
meaningless.
Consequences of Individual Differences

1. People differ in productivity

2. People differ in quality of their work
3. People react differently to empowerment
4. People react differently to any style of
leadership
5. People differ in terms of need for contact
with other people
6. People differ in terms of commitment to the
organization
7. people differ in terms of level of self esteem
 PEOPLE WITH
Differences
DIFFERENT
between • Quantities of
people output
• Qualities of
output
• Reactions to
empowerment
• Reactions to a
given leadership
style
Result to • degrees of need
for contact with
others
• Degrees of
commitment to
the organization
• Levels of self
esteem

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PEOPLE

WHAT MAKES PEOPLE DIFFERENT FROM EACH
OTHER

• Demographics
• Aptitude and ability
• Personality
DEMOGRAPHIC DIVERSITY
The source of demographic diversity include the
following :

1.Gender
2.Generational differences and age;
3.Culture
 Gender Differences
Research findings indicate that there are very few differences
between men and women that affect job performance.
Specifically men and women are not different along the
following concerns:

1.Problem Solving Abilities

2. Analytical Skills
3.Competitive Drive
4. Motivation
5.Learning ability
6. sociability
GENERATIONAL and AGE-BASED DIFFERENCES
• A worker that belong to a certain generation may behave
differently from a worker who belongs to another.

CULTURE
• Refers to the learned and shared ways of thinking and
acting among a group of people or society.
• Differences in job performance and behavior are
sometimes caused by differences in culture
 Reasons why people
are different from What Makes People
each other Different from each
other

DEMOGRAPHI APTITUDE
AND ABILITY PERSONALITY
CS

GENDER PHYSICAL
CHARACT-
INTELLECT PHYSIC ERISTIC
GENERATIO
NAL
UAL AL
ABILITY ABILITY
DIFFERENCE
S A ND AGE
MENTAL
CHARACT-
ERISTIC
CULTURE
 Culture has two dimensions
1.Social Culture- which refers to the social
environment of human-created beliefs,
customs, knowledge,and practices that
define conventional behavior in a society
2.Organizational Culture-is the set of values
,beliefs, and norms that is shared among
members of an organization.
 APTITUDE and ABILITY
APTITUDE may be defined as the capacity of a person to
learn or acquire skills.
ABILITY refers to an individual’s capacity to perform the
various tasks
In a job.

Physical Ability refers the capacity of the individual to

do tasks demanding stamina,dexterity,strength,and similar
characteristics
Intellectual abilities refers to the capacity to do mental
activities, such as thinking, reasoning and problem solving.

*Low aptitude and abilities would mean higher training costs.

 Nine Physical Abilities Needed to Perform
Certain Tasks
1.Dynamic Strength- this is the ability to exert muscular force repeatedly
or continuously overtime
2. Trunk Strength- this is the ability to exert muscular strength using the trunk
(particularly abdominal muscles)muscles
3.Static Strength- This is the ability to exert force against external objects.
4.Explosive Strength-This is the ability to expend a maximum of energy in one or
a series of explosive acts.
5. Extent flexibility-this is the ability to move the trunk and back muscles as
far as possible
6. Dynamic flexibility- This is the ability to make rapid ,repeated flexing
movement
7. Body Coordination-This is the ability to coordinate the simultaneous
actions of different parts of the body.
8.Balance- This is the ability to maintain equilibrium despite force pulling off
balance
9. Stamina-This is the ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged
effort overtime.
Dynamic Strength
Trunk Strength
Static Strength
Explosive Strength
Extent flexibility and Dynamic
flexibility
Body and Balance Coordination
Stamina
 Dimension of Intellectual Ability

Intelligence is composed of four subparts

which are as follows :
1.Cognitive
2. Social
3. Emotional
4.Cultural
Cognitive Intellegence –refers to the capacity of a person to acquire and
apply knowledge including solving problem.

Social Intellegence –refers to a person’s ability to relate effectively with

others

Emotional Intellegence –refers to a person’s qualities such as

understanding one’s own feeling, empathy for
others and the regulation of emotion to
enhance living.

Cultural Intellegence –refers to an outsider’s ability to interpret someone’s

unfamiliar and ambiguous behavior the same way
that person’s compatriot would
The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg developed an approach to the

study of intelligence which is now known as the
triarchic theory of intelligence.He maintains that
there are three important parts of intelligence :
1. Componential Intelligence
2. Experiential Intelligence
3. Contextual Intelligence.
Componential Intelligence also referred to as analytical intelligence it involves
components(or mental processes)used in thinking.
This is the traditional type of intelligence needed
for solving difficult problems with abstract reasoning.

Experiential Intellegence also referred to as creative intelligence,is that type

of intelligence that focuses on how people perform
on tasks with which they have either little or no
previous experience or else great experience. It is
the type of intelligence that is required for
imagination and combining things in novel ways

Contextual Intelligence also known as practical intelligence,is a type of

everyday intelligence or street smarts .I t requires
adapting to,selecting,and shaping our real- world
environment.
Contextual Intelligence incorporates the ideas of
common sense,wisdom and street smarts.
 Multiple Intelligence

Another eminent researcher Howard Gardner,

developed a very useful means of understanding
intelligence. It is referred to as the Theory of Multiple
Intelligences. He proposed eight different components
of intelligence which the individual possesses in varying
degrees.
 EIGHT DIFFERENT INTELLIGENCE
1. Lingustic –People who possess this component of intelligence is
sensitive to language , meanings and relation among words .
Linguistic intelligence makes people able to communicate through
language including reading, writing, and speaking . This is a distinct
characteristic of novelist,poets,copy writer, scriptwriter,editors,
magazine writers,public relation directors and speech writers.
2. Logical-Mathematical-This intelligence components covers abstract
thought ,precision ,counting ,organization , and logical structure ,
enabling the individual to see relationship between objects and solve
problems such as those in algebra and actuarial concern.
3. Musical – This intelligence component gives people the capacity to
create and understand meaning made out of sounds and to enjoy
different types of music.
4. Spatial- This intelligence component enables people to perceive and
manipulate images in their brain and to re-create them from memory
such as in making graphic designs.
5.Bodily-Kinesthetic- This intelligence enables people to use their
body and perceptual and motor system in skilled ways such as
dancing, playing sports and expressing emotion through facial
expression.
6.Intrapersonal- The person with this kind of intelligence has highly
accurate understanding of himself or herself .He or she is
sensitive to his/her values, purpose , feelings and has a developed
of sense of self.
7.Interpersonal-This intelligence component makes it possible for
persons to recognize and make distinctions among the feelings ,
motives and intentions of others .
8. Naturalist- A person with this intelligence possesses the ability to
seek patterns in the external physical environment.
 Various Theories of
Intelligence

Multiple
Dimensio
Triarchic Intelligence
n of
Theory Theory
Intellectu Linguisti
al Ability c
Compon Logical/Ma
Cognitive
ential thematical
Experien Musical
Social tial
Spatial
Bodily
Emotion Kinesthetic
al Contextu Intraperson
al al
Cultural Interpersonal
Naturalis
Components of the Various Theories of Intelligence t
Personality

Refers to the sum total of ways in which an

individual reacts and interacts with others .
The “ways” are the patterns of behavior that are
consistent and enduring.
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
The personality of an individual is a result of both hereditary
and environmental factors. Heredity defines, the limits by
which environment can develop personality characteristics.
Hereditary Factors are those factors that are determined at
conception
1.Physical Stature
2. Facial Attractiveness
3.Gender
4.Temperament
5.Muscle Composition and Reflexes
6.Energy Level
7.Biological Rhythms
Environmental Factors
Cultural Factor- which refers to established norms,
attitudes, and values that are passed along from one
generation to the next and create consistency over
time.
Social Factor - which refer to those that reflect
family life, religion, and many kinds of formal and
informal groups in which the individual participate
throughout his life.
Situational -which indicate that the individual will
behave differently in different situations.
 The Eight Personality and Traits
Emotional stability This personality
.
factor characterize one as calm , self
confident and secure . Its opposite is
emotional instability characterized by
nervousness , depression and insecurity
Extraversion This personality factor describing
.
someone who is sociable , gregarious and assertive.
The opposite is introversion , which describe a
person who tends to be reserved , timid , and quiet.
Openness to experience.This personality factor describing
a person who is imaginative,cultured,curious,original,broad-
minded,intelligent,and artistcally sensitive.The opposite is the
person who is conventional and finds comfort in the familiar.

Agreeableness This factors refers to the person’s

interpersonal orientation.An agreeable person is
cooperative,warm, and trusting.The person who is not
agreeable is cold,disagreeable,and antagonistic.

Conscientiousness.This factor refers to a person’s

reliability.Those with high degree of conscientiousness are
responsible,organized,dependable and persistent.Those with a
low degree of conscientiousness are easily
distracted,disorganized and unreliable.
Self-monitoring.This reflects a person’s ability to adjust his or
her behavior on external,situational or environmental
factors.High self monitors are pragmatic and are capable of
putting on different faces for different audiences.Low self
monitors find it hard to act or behave the situation requires.

Risk taking and thrill seeking.These refers to the person’s

willingness to take a risk and pursue thrills that sometimes are
required in the workplaces

Optimism.This refers to the tendency to experience positive

emotional states and to typically believe that positive outcomes
will be forthcoming from most activities.
 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
• The concept of emotional intelligence or
quotient was introduced by Daniel Goleman

• EQ refers to the ability of the person to accurately

perceive , evaluate , express and regulate
emotions and feelings.
 FIVE COMPONENTS OF EQ are the following :

1. Self Regulation. This refers to the ability of a person to

calm down anxiety, control impulsiveness, and react
appropriately to anger.
2. Motivation. This refers to the passion to work for
reasons that go beyond money or status.
3. Empathy. This refers to the ability to respond to the
unspoken feelings of others.
4. Self awareness. This refers to the awareness of one’s
own personality or individuality.
5. Social skills.This refers to the proficiency to manage
relationship and building networks.
 More on Physical Activities
The following factors are important in determining the reasons
for difference in individual behavior.

• Sense of sight
• Sense of hearing
• Sense of taste
• Sense of smell
• Sense of touch
LEARNING,PERCEPTION
AND ATTRIBUTION
Learning may be defined as a relatively
permanent change in behavior or
knowledge due to experience.
 Direct
EXPERIENCE
(observation,pracrice
etc.)

INDIREC
T(READI
LEARNING
NG,WATC
HING
MOVIES)

CHANGE IN OTHER
BEHAVIOR(PHYSI CAUSES(DRU
G,INJURY,DI
CAL OR CHANGE SEASE,MATU
OF KNOWLEDGE) RATION

Learning and Behavior

SOCIALLY
APPROPRIA
MISCONDUC
TE
T
BEHAVIOR
Theories of Learning
• Classical Conditoning. May be defined as a type of learning in which a stimulus
acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another
stimulus.

Original
Stimulus Response

Neutral
Stimulus

Conditioned Conditioned
Stimulus Response
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning may be defined as a type of learning
where people learn to repeat behavior that bring them
pleasurable outcomes and to avoid behavior that lead to
uncomfortable outcomes.
LEARNING

REPEAT AVOID

BEHAVIOR BEHAVIOR
That brings That brings

Pleasurable Uncomfortab
Outcome le Outcome
Social Learning
process of observing the behavior of others
,recognizing its consequences,and altering behavior
as a result.

How Social Learning is Achieved

Social learning may be done in three ways
namely:
1.By observing what happens to other people.
2. by being told about something
3. through direct experience.
Perception
May be defined as the process by which people
select,organize,interpret,retrieve and respond to
information from their environment.

Factors Influencing Perception

1. Perceiver
2. Target
3. The Situation
The Perceiver
The person who perceive the target is the
perceiver.His perception of the target is
influenced by factors that are unique to him.

1. His past experience

2. His needs or motives
3. His personality
4. His values and attitudes.
 THE
ENVIRONMENT

INFORMATIO
N

SELECT PEOP
ORGANIZE LE
INTERPRE
T
RETRIEVE
RESPOND

THE PROCESS OF PERCEPTION

 The Target
The person,object or event that is perceived by
another person is the target

Perception may be modified by the following factors

1. Contrast
2. Intensity
3. Figure-ground separation
4. Size
5. Motion
6. Repetition or Novelty
 Past Experience
Needs or motives
PERCEIVER
Personality
FACTOR
Values and attitude

Factors Influencing
PERCEPTION
Perception

TARGET SITUATIO
FACTOR N
S FACTORS

Contrast
Intensity
Time
Figure-ground separation Work Setting
Size
Motion Social Setting
Repetition or Novelty
The Situation
Perception is also affected by the surrounding
environment

The Situational Factors that affect

perception are : Time,Work Setting
and Social Setting
 Attribution
Attribution theory is the process by which people ascribe
causes to the behavior they perceive

Common Attribution Error

1. The fundamental attribution error
2. Self serving bias

The fundamental attribution error refer to the tendency to

underestimate the influence of external factors and
overestimate the influence of internal or personal factors in
the behavior of others
Self Serving Bias is that type of attribution error whereby people tend to
attribute their achievements to the good inner qualities,whereas they attribute their
failures to adverse factors within the environment.

Factors That Influence Attribution

1. Distinctiveness
2. Consensus
3. Consistency

Distinctiveness
How consistent a person’s behavior across different
situation.
Consensus
This refer to the likelihood that all
those facing the same situation will
have similar response.

Consistency
This refer to the measure of whether
an individual respond the same way
across time.
 SHORTCUTS USED IN FORMING IMPRESSION OF
OTHERS

• Most often these shortcuts produce misleading

conclusion s and this should serve as warning to people
who make use of these shortcuts.

The shortcuts refer to the following :

1. Selective perception
2. Halo Effect
3. Contrast effects
4. Projection
5. Stereotyping.
 SELECTIVE PERCEPTION
Happens when a person selectively interprets what he
sees on the basis of his interests,background,experience
and attitude
HALO EFFECT
Occurs when one attribute of a persons or situation is
used to develop overall impression of the person or
situation.

CONTRAST EFFECT
May be defined as evaluation of a person’s characteristic that are affected by
comparions with others recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same
characteristics.
Projection
Is attributing one’s own thoughts,feeling or motives
to another.

Stereotyping
Refer to judging someone on the basis of one’s
perception of the group to which the person
belongs.
VALUES,ATTITUDES
AND JOB
SATISFACTION
 JOB
SATISFACTI
ON

ATTITUDE

VALUES

VALUES,ATTITUDES,AND JOB SATISFACTION

VALUES
Refer to the importance a person attaches to things or ideas
that serves as guide to action.

How People Learn Values

1. Modeling
2. Communication of Attitudes
3. Unstated but implied attitudes
4. religion
 Types of Values
1. Achievement-this is value that pertains to getting things done
and working hard to accomplish goals.

2. Helping and concern for others-this value refers to the person’s

concern with other people and providing assistance to those who
need help.

3.Honesty-this is a value that indicates the person’s concern

for telling the truth and doing what he thinks is right.

4.Fairness-this is a value that indicates the person’s concern for

impartiality and fairness to all concerned
Organizational Organizational
Values Values

When congruent with When incongruent with

The Individual’s The Individual’s

Values Values

equals
equals

conflict
Positive
feelings Effects of Value Congruence and Incongruence
Espoused Value
are what member of the organization say they
value

Enacted Value
Those that are reflected in the actual
behavior of the individual member of the
organization.
 Instrumental and Terminal Values

Terminal Values
Represent the goals that a person would like to achieve in
his or her life time.

Instrumental Values
refer to preferable modes of behavior or means of
achieving the terminal values
 Attitudes

• Linked with perception .learning, emotion and motivation.

• Are feelings and beliefs that largely determine how
employees will perceive their environment ,commit
themselves to intended actions and
ultimately behave
 The Main Components ofAttitude

1.Cognitive
2.Affective
3.Behavioral

Cognitive Component refer to the opinion or belief

segment of an attitude.

Affective- refer to the emotional or feeling segment.

Behavioral Component- refer to the intention to behave in a

certain way toward someone or something.
 COGNITIVE
(EVALUATION
)
My boss is fickle –minde
He cannot stick to his
decision

NEGATI
VE
AFFECTIVE ATTITU
(FEELING) DE
I hate my boss TOWAR
D BOSS

BEHAVIORAL(
ACTION)
I am requesting for a transfer
The Components of An Attitude
Difference in Personal Disposition
People differ in their personal disposition. Some have attitudes
that are positively affective, while some have negatively affective
attitudes.

Manager and supervisors will benefit from knowing the personal

disposition of their subordinate.
 How Attitudes Are Formed

Attitudes are formed through learning. The two

methods that mostly influence attitude formation
are direct experience and indirect means of social
learning.

Most Important Attitudes in the Workplace

1. Job Satisfaction
2. Job Involvement
3. Organizational Commitment
 EFFECTS OF EMPLOYEE
EMPLOYEES
ATTITUDE ATTITUDES

POSITIVE NEGATIVE

JOB
INVOLVEME Lack of Job
involvement Low
NT
Organizational
Commitment

Job Job
Satisfaction Dissatisfactio
Organizational n
commitment
Day dreaming
Performing excellently
in all job aspects Unathorized absences
Early departure
Extended breaks
Serving customers Work slowdown
beyond working hours
Verbal abuse
Dangerous action
Against another employee
 Effects of Employee Attitude.

Employees attitude may be classified as :

1.Positive job attitudes
2.Negative job attitudes.
Positive Job Attitude indicate job satisfaction and
are useful in predicting constructive behaviors like
serving customer behind official working hours and
performing excellent in all aspects of their jobs.
Negative Job Attitudes are also useful in predicting
undesirable behavior.

When employees are dissatisfied with their jobs , they will

have strong tendency to
Engage in any of the following
1. Psychological withdrawal like daydreaming on the job.
2. Physical withdrawal like unauthorized absence, early
departure,extended breaks,or work slowdown
3. Aggression like verbal abuse or dangerous action against
another employee.
Making Positive Attitude Work for
the Organization

 People with positive work attitude make it

easy for the organization to achieve its
objectives
Job Satisfaction
Refer to the positive feeling about one’s job resulting from
an evaluation of its characteristics.
When the feeling about one’s job is not positive, the
appropriate term is JOB DISSATISFACTION

When the people are satisfied with their jobs,the following

benefits become possible
 High productivity
 A stronger tendecy to achieve customer loyalty
 Loyalty to the company
 Low abseenteiesm and turnover
 Less job stess and burnout
 Better safety performance
 Better life satisfaction
Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction

Salary
Work itself
Promotion Opportunity
Quality of Supervision
Relationship with Co Workers
Working Condition
Job Security
Ways to Measuring Job Satisfaction

• Single global rating method

• Summation score method
The Single Global Rating Method is an approach
where individuals are asked to respond to a single
question such as “how satisfied are you with your
job?”The respondents indicate their answer by putting a
check(/)before any of the numbers from 5 to 1

The Summation Score where individuals indicate their

feelings regarding each key factor of their job.
Job Involvement
refers to the degree to which a person identifies with
the job,actively participates in it and and consider
performance important to self worth.

Organizational Commitment
refer to the degree to which an employee identifies
with particular organization and its goal and wishes to
maintain membership in the organization.
Organizational Commitment are categorized into
three Dimenson

1.Affective Commitment
2.Continuance Commitment
3.Normative Commitment
Affective Commitment refers to the employee’s
emotional attachment to the organization and belief
in its values

Continuance Commitment refers to the employee’s

tendency to remain in the organization because he
cannot afford to leave
 The reason why employees choose to continue
employment with the firm may be classified as
either
 Economic
 Non economic
 Economic Factors refer to salary, allowances and
retirement pension

 Non Economic benefits include participation in decision

making,job security and certain job characteristics such as
autonomy,responsibility and interesting work.

Normative Commitment
Refers to an obligation to remain with the company for
moral or ethical reason.
Motivation
 Determinants of Job Performance

The capacity to perform

The opportunity to perform
Willingness to perform
 CAPACITY
TO
PERFORM

OPPORTUNI
TY TO
PERFORM
JOB PERFORMANCE

WILLINGNE
SS TO
PERFORM

Determinants of JOB PERFORMANCE

Motivation may be defined as the
process of activating behavior ,sustaining
it and directing It toward a particular goal.
In a workplace motivation may be more
specifically defined as the set of internal
and external forces that cause a worker
or employee to choose a course of
action and engage in certain behavior
 Internal force worker External
force

Certain
Course Bahavio
of action r

Organizational

THE PROCESS OF WORK MOTIVATION

 KEY ELEMENTS OF MOTIVATION
Motivation consists of the following elements:
1. Intensity
2. Direction
3. Persistence

Intensity-refers to the level of effort provided by the

employee in the attempt to achieve the goal assigned to
him
- refer how hard a person tries to do work.
Direction-relates to what an individual chooses to do
when he is confronted with a number of possible choices

Persistence- is a dimension of motivation which

measure how long a person can maintain effort to achieve
the organization’s goal
 Theories of Motivation

Content Theories
are those that focus on analyzing the wants and needs of an
individual.

1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory

2. ERG Theory of Clayton Alderfer
3. Acquired Needs theory of David McClelland
4. Two-factor theory of Frederick Herzberg
Process Theories
explain how people act in response to the wants and
need that they have.

1. Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom

2. Equity Theory of J. Stacey Adams
3. Goal Setting Theory of Edwin A. Locke
 THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION

Content Process
Theories Theories
ACQUIRED
NEEDS Goal
THEORY Settin
g
Theor
ERG y
THEOR TWO- Equity
Y FACTOR
THEORY Theor
y
Hierarchy EXPECTANCY
THEORY
of needs
theory

Theories of Motivation
The Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Self Actualization

Esteem

Social

Safety

Physiological

Maslow’s Hierarchy of
The ERG Theory
 Developed by Clayton Aldefer, He believed that motivating people,
we are confronted by three set of needs : existence(E),
Relatedness(R) and Growth (G)
1. Existence –This refers to need satisfied by such factors as
food,air,water,pay,and working conditions
2. Relatedness-This refers to the needs satisfied by
meaningful social and interpersonal relationships
3. Growth – This refers to the needs satisfied by an
individual making creative or productive contribution
Acquired Needs Theory
Developed by David McClelland

They found out that managers are motivated by three

fundamental needs:
1. Needs for Achievement
2. Needs for Affiliation
3. Needs for Power
 Two Factor Theory
Developed by Frederick Hezberg.Identifies Job Context as a
source of job dissatisfacton and job content as a source of job
satisfaction.
The job context or work settings relates more to the environment in
which people work.The factor associated with job context are called
hygiene factor
1. Organizational Policies
2. Quality of Supervision
3. Working Condition
4. Base Wage or Salary
5. Relationship with peers
6. Relationship with Subordinates
7. Status
8. Security
The job content relates more to what people
actually do in their work .Those that are related to
job content are called motivator factors.

1.Achievement
2.Recognition
3.Work Itself
4.Responsibility
5.Advancement
6.Growth
Expectancy Theory
 Developed by Victor Vroom
 This theory sees people as choosing a course of action according to
what they anticipate will give them greatest rewards.
Vroom elaborated by explaining that motivation is a product of
the following factors :
1. Valence-how much one wants a reward;
2. Expectancy- one’s estimate probability that effort will result in
successful performance.
3. Instrumentality- one’s estimate that performance will result in
receiving reward.

Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality-Motivation

 Performa
Effort nce
Reward

Intrumentality Valence
Expectancy
(perceived effort- (perceived performance- (perceived values of
performance reward probability rewards
probability

AN EXPECTANCY MODEL OF MOTIVATION

Equity Theory
 Theory that individuals compare job inputs and
outcome s with those of others and then respond to
eliminate inequities
 Assumes that employees are motivated by a desire to
be equitably treated at work
 Equity exists when employees perceive that the ratio
of their inputs (or efforts) to their outputs (or
rewards)are equivalent to the ratios of other
employees.
Inequity exists when these ratios are not
equivalent.

Inequity leads to the experience of tension,and

tension motivates a person to act in a manner to
resolve the inequity.
Two types of Inequity
1.Over Rewarded
2.Under Rewarded
Employees who feel over rewarded will think there is imbalance in
their relationship with their employer. They will restore the balance
through the following :

1. They might work harder

2. They might discount the value of the reward.
3. They could try to convince other employees to ask for
more rewards
4. They might choose someone else for comparison
purposes
 When employees feel under rewarded they will seek to
reduce their feelings of inequity through any of the
following

1. They might lower the quality or quantity of their

productivity
2. They could inflate the perceived value of the rewards
received
3. They could find someone to compare themselves
4. They could bargain for more rewards
5. They might quit.
Goal Setting Theory
 Developed by Edwin Locke
 Defined as the theory that specific and difficult goals with
feedback lead to higher performance.
 It is based on the premises that behavior is regulated by values and
goals.

Edwin Locke and associates findings about goals

1. Specific Goals lead to higher performance than generalized goals.
2. Performance generally increase in direct proportion to goal
difficulty.
3. For goals to improve performance , they must be accepted by the
workers.
4. Goals are more effective when they are used to evaluate
performance.
5. Goals should be linked to feedback.
VALUES

Goals that are

1. Specific
2. Difficult but achievable
3. Accepted by the person
4. Used in evaluating performance
5. Linked to feedback

Improved
Performance Goal Setting Theory
Motivational Methods and Programs
1. Motivation through Job Design
2. Organizational Behavior Modification
3. Motivation through Recognition and Pride
4. Motivation through financial incentives
 Motivation Through Job Design
 Job design may be defined as the way the element in a job are
organized.
Work arrangement (or rearrangement) aimed at reducing or
overcoming job dissatisfaction and employee alienation arising from
repetitive and mechanistic tasks. Through job design, organizations
try to raise productivity levels by offering non-monetary rewards
such as greater satisfaction from a sense of personal achievement in
meeting the increased challenge and responsibility of one's work
Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/job-design.html
 Three Concepts are important in designing jobs.

1.Job Enrichment
2.Job Characteristics Model
3.Job Crafting

Job Enrichment
• Job enrichment adds new sources of job satisfaction by increasing
the level of responsibility of the employee.
(Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/job-enrichment.html)
• Refer to a practice of building motivating factors like responsibility,
achievement and recognition into job content
 Characteristics of Enriched Job :

1. Direct feedback-employees received immediate evaluation of their work

2. Clients Relationships—employees is given a chance to serve an external and internal
client .
3. New learning- which means that employees acquired new knowledge while doing his
work.
4. Control over method-which means that employees has some control over which
method to choose to accomplish a task.
5. Control over scheduling- which means the employee has the ability to accomplish to
schedule his work.
6. Unique Experience-which means the job has unique qualities or features.
7. Direct Communication Authority-Provide the opportunity to employee to
communicate directly to the people who use their output.
8. Control over resources-which means the employee has some control over resources
such as money,material or people
9. Personal Accountability- which means the employees is responsible for his or her
result.
Job Characteristic Model
refer to the method of job design that focuses on the task
and interpersonal demands of a job.

Five core Job Characteristics:

1. Skill Variety
2. Task Identity
3. Task Significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
 Job Crafting
Refers to the physical and mental changes worker make in the
task or relationship aspect of their job.

The common types of Job Crafting are :

1. Changing the number and job tasks
2. Changing the interaction with others on the job.
3. Changing one’s view on the job.
Organizational Behavior Modification
Application of Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory may be briefly
defined as the contention that behavior is
determined by its consequences. Simply stated, a
person tends to repeat behavior that is
accompanied by favorable consequences and
tends not to repeat behavior that is accompanied
by unfavorable consequences.
OB MOD Program consists of five step
problem solving model
1. Identifying critical behaviors
2. Developing baseline data
3. Identifying behavioral consequences
4. Developing and implementing an
intervention strategy
5. Evaluating Performance Improvement
Benefits of OB Mod are:
1. Improvement of employees
productivity
2. Reduction of error, absenteeism,
tardiness, and accident rate
3. Improvement of friendliness toward
customers
Motivation through Recognition and Pride
1. Identify a meritorious behavior
2. Recognize the behavior with an oral, written or material
reward
Points to consider for better understanding and implementation of
reward and recognition program
1. Feedback is an essential part of recognition
2. Praise is one of the most powerful form of recognition.
3. Reward and Recognition programs should be limited to
organizational goals
4. Identification of the type of rewards and recognition that the
workers will value.
5. It is important to evaluate the effectiveness of the reward and
recognition program.
Pride is also motivator but one that is intrinsic .Workers
who achieve outstanding performance experience the
emotion of pride. The feeling satisfies the need for self-
esteem and self-fulfillment.
Motivation through Financial Incentives
Monetary rewards paid to employees because of the output they
produce, skills, knowledge, and competencies or a combination of
these factors.

Financial Incentives takes the form of any or a

combination of the following:
1. Time rates
2. Payment by results
3. Performance and Profit Related Pay
4. Skill/Competency based pay
5. Cafeteria or flexible benefit system.
Time Rates
This type of monetary reward use the number of hours worked as a
means of determining rewards.It may be classified as hourly rate
or weekly wages or monthly salary.
The Advantage of Time Rates
1. It is open to inspection and equitable because employees doing
the same job will
be on the same grade level.
2. It encourages the retention of human resources by stability and this
is because of the gradual increase in rewards within the given
grades.
3. It is relatively easy to administer and allow labor cost to be
predicted.
4. It does not emphasize quantity of output to the detriment of
quality.
The main disadvantage of time rates is that it does not motivate
employee to become more productive.

Payment by Results
Schemes links pay to the quantity of the individual’s output.
Advantages
1. The employee is motivated to put in extra effort because by doing so, he or she will
receive additional income
2. There is fairness because the level of reward is related to the level of output
3. There are likely to be cost advantage since wages are directly linked to production and
less supervision is required.
The disadvantage of payment by results are as follows :
1. Outputs in certain job s cannot be easily measured
2. Safety Standard may be compromised
3. Workers may be view payment by results as a device to obtain greater effort from
them without commensurate rewards
 Performance Related Pay
Scheme consider result or output plus actual behavior in the job.

Advantages
1. It increases employees beliefs(instrumentality) that reward will follow high performance
2. Those that perform better are rewarded more
3. It is comparatively objective and verifiable.

Disadvantage
1. Cost rises along with the rewards
2. The System is complex
3. Employees with declining energy may experience a decrease in total pay
4. The union may resist the incentive idea
5. There is delay in payment of incentive
6. The system is rigid
7. It is difficult to motivate higher performance across a broad range of employees.
Profit Related Pay
organization wide scheme where pay is linked to company
profits.
Advantage
1. Employees identify more closely with the success of the organization
2. There is a breaking down or removal or communication barrier between
management and employees
3. Cooperation and working together for mutual benefit s encouraged;
4. Awareness of the link between performance and organizational
profitability leads to greater awareness costs and their impact on
performance.
5. When profits fall,the decline in pay is a preferable alternative to laying off
employees
6. Group pressure could raise the performance level of poor performers
Disadvantage
1. Profits are not directly related to an employee’s effort on the job
and this is a negative factor to motivation
2. Employees must wait for their reward and the delay diminishes its
impact
3. Since profit are unpredictable,total worker income may vary from
year to year .
Skill Based Pay
Also known as competency based or knowledge based pay ,this
is a pay plan that sets pay level on the basis of how many skills
employees have or how many jobs they can do :

Advantage
1. It provide strong motivation for employees to develop their work-related skills;
2. It reinforce an employees sense of self-esteem;
3. It provide an organization with highly flexible workforce that can fill in when someone is
absent.
Disadvanatge
1. Since most employees will be voluntarily learn higher level jobs,the average hourly
pay rate will be greater than normal
2. A substantial investment in employee training must be made especially in the time
spent coaching by supervisors and peers
3. Not all employees like skill based pay because it placed pressure on them to move up
the skill ladder
4. Some employees will qualify themselves for skill areas that they will unlikely
use,causing the organization to pay them higher rates than they deserve.
Cafeteria or Flexible Benefit System
This is a benefit plan that allows each employee to put together a
benefit package individually tailored to his or her own needs and
situation.
Advantage
1. It enable employees to choose options that best fit their own needs
2. Deciding among the various option makes employees more aware of the benefits
giving them a real sense of the value of the benefits their employers provide
3. Flexible benefit plan can lower compensation costs because employers no longer
have to pay for unwanted benefits
4. Employers and employees can save taxes.
Disadvantage
1. It creates an administrative burden
2. It can lead to the increased insurance premium
COMMUNICATION
Communication
may be defined as the transfer of information including
feelings,and ideas from one person to another

The Importance of Communication

1. What their organization is
2. What objectives their organization want to achieve
3. What their roles are in achieving the organization’s
objective
4. How they will achieve those objectives
5. Who the individual members of the organization are
The Communication Process

Six Components of an effective communication.

1.A communication source or sender
2.A message
3.A channel
4.A receiver
5.Feedback
6.The environment
 ENVIRONMENT

NOISE

ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONMENT

SENDER CHANNEL
RECEIVER

FEEDBACK

The
NOISE Communication
ENVIRONMENT
Process
SENDER
Is a person who makes the attempt to send a message which could
be spoken,written in sign language or non verbal to another person
or a group of persons.

MESSAGE
Is a purpose or an idea to be conveyed in a communication event.

How the message is received is influenced by the following factors

1. Clarity of the message
2. Alertness of the receiver
3. Complexity and Length of the Message
4. How the information is organized
The Message has two components :
1. The thought or conceptual component of the message –This is
contained in the words ,ideas, symbols and concepts chosen to
relay the message
2. The feeling or emotional component of the message-This is
contained in the intensity,force,demeanor and sometimes t he
gesture of the communicator or sender

The Channel
The medium through which the message travel.
1. Face to face
2. Telephone and Cell phone
3. E-mail
4. Written memos and letters
5. Posted Notices
6. Bulletins
 The Communication Channel may be classified also as
1. Formal
2. Informal
The Receiver
The person receiving the message.

The Feedback
refer to the process of communicating how one feels about
something another person has done or said

The Environment
refer to the circumstances in which messages are transmitted
and received.
The Noise
Anything that disrupts communication including the attitude and
emotion of the receiver.

Basic Methods of Interpersonal Communication

1. Verbal
2. Written
3. Non Verbal Communication

Verbal Communication
is a major means of sending messages.It includes one-on-one
meetings,speeches,grapevine,telephone,departmental or
interdepartmental meetings,and presentation.
A major disadvantage of verbal is the distortion of the message when
it passes to several people

Verbal Communication is the appropriate method if the sender:

1. Wants to appear informal
2. Wants to invite suggestions and ideas which are more likely to
spark off a discussion
3. Is explaining something complex and people might need to ask for
clarification as he goes along
4. Has important news to impact such as retrenchment
5. Need to be very diplomatic and feels he will be more effective
face-to-face than in writing.
6. Has something highly confidential to say and putting it in writing is
risky
Verbal Communication is not appropriate when the sender
1. Wants to maintain formality or distance from the other person to
the group of people
2. Wants a permanent records of what has been said
3. Needs receiver’s comments to be in writing for legal reasons;
4. Wants to avoid furher discussion of the subkect by signaling that
the matter is closed

Written Communication
Includes memos, notice-boards and letters to staff ,emails,
faxes,Internal newspaper and instant messaging.
 Advantage of Written Communication
1. It is formal and authoritative
2. It provides a permanent record of what have been said
3. It provide a document useful for legal purposes
4. A number of people will receive exactly the same information
5. It is useful in communicating something complicated
6. It is sometimes quicker
7. It avoids a lengthy discussion
8. Words can be chosen carefully

Written Communication is not appropiate when :

1. The receiver needs to ask questions or seek clarification
2. More discussion is needed before fact is established
3. A friendly informal atmosphere is needed
4. The message is very important
5. The message is confidential
6. The information may be upsetting to the receiver.
Non Verbal Communication
Communication that takes place through facial expression,body
movement,eye contact and other physical gesture

Function of Communication
1. Information Function
2. Motivation Function
3. Control Function
4. Emotive Function
Basic Goals of Effective Communication
1. To gain goodwill
2. To inquire
3. To inform
4. To persuade
 Barriers to Communication
1. Filtering
2. Selective perception
3. Information Overload
4. Emotions
5. Language
6. Communication Apprehension
7. Absence of feedback
8. Physical Separation
9. Lack of Credibility of the Sender

Filtering
refer to manipulation of information so that is will be seen more
favorably by the receiver
Selective Perception
receiver selectively see and hear message based on their
needs, motivations, experience, background and other
personal characteristics.

Information Overload
refer to the condition in which information inflow exceeds an
individual’s processing capacity
Emotions
The Receivers feeling affect his ability to understand
any message sent to him

Language
Words do not always means the same thing to
different people
 Communication Apprehension
refers to the undue tension and anxiety about oral
communication,written communication or both
Absence of Feedback
The absence of feedback does not provide a sender the
opportunity to correct misimpressions about the message
sent
Physical Separation
Refers to interferences to effective communication occuring in
the environment where the communication is undertaken.
Physical barrier
1. Distances between people
2. Walls
3. An office that is not conducive to communication
4. An intimidating person posting near the door
5. Wrong timing
Lack of Credibility of the Sender
Depending on the credibility of the sender, message can get
through the channel to the receiver.

Kinds of Communication Flow

1. Downward
2. Upward
3. Horizontal
Downward Communication
refer to message flow from higher level to lower levels
Purpose
1. To give instruction
2. To provide information about policies and procedure
3. To give feedback about performance
4. To indoctrinate or motivate
 The various techniques used in downward communication:
1. Letters, meetings,,and the telephone or cellphone
2. Manuals
3. Handbooks
4. Newsletter
Upward Communication
refers to messages from persons in lower level positions to persons in higher
positions.
PURPOSE
1. To provide feedback to higher ups
2. To inform higher up of progreess toward goals
3. To relay current problem

Techniques used in upward communication

1. Performance reports
2. Suggestions Sytems
3. Informal gripe session
4. Open-door policy
5. Exit interviews
Horizontal Communication
Refer to message sent to individuals or groups from another of the
same organizational level or position
Purpose
1. To coordinate activities between departments
2. To persuade others at the same level of organization
3. To pass information about activities or feelings

Techniques appropriate for Horizontal Communication

1. Memos
2. Telephone or Cellphones
3. Picnics
4. Dinner and other social affairs
 Downward Communication
• Implementation of goal, Interpret
strategies,
Objectives
• Job instruction and rationale
• Procedure and practices
• indoctrination

Upward Communication
• Problem and exceptions
• Suggestions for improvement
Influence • Performance reports
• Grievance and Dispute
• Financial and Accounting
information

Coordination
Horizontal Communication
• Intradepartmental problem solving
• Interdepartmental coordination
• Staff advise to the departments

THE AREAS OF CONCERN IN MESSAGE FLOWS

IMPROVING COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATION
1. The message should be improved so it could be easily
understood
2. The receiver must improve his skills in understanding the
message sent to him.
WORK TEAMS AND
GROUPS
Groups
May be defined as two or more persons ,interacting and
interdependent who have come together to achieve certain
objectives

Group Classification
1. Formal Group- defined by the organization structure ,with
designated work assignments and established task
2. Informal Group-It is formed by individuals and developed around
common interests and friendship rather than around adeliberate
design
 GROUPS

FORMAL INFORMAL

COMMAND INTEREST FRIENDSHIP

TASK GROUP GROUP
GROUP GROUP

TYPES OF GROUPS
Types of Formal Group
1. Command group –A group composed of individual who report
directly to certain manager
2. Task Group—It is that kind of group consisting of a persons
working together to complete a job task.

Types of Informal Group

1. Interest Group- one that is formed because of some special
topic interest.
2. Friendship Group-is one where member are brought together
because they share one or two common characteristics
Why People Form Groups
1. Need satisfaction
2. Proximity
3. Attraction
4. Goals
5. economics

Stage of Group Development

1. Forming Stage
2. Storming Stage
3. Norming Stage
4. Performing Stage
5. Adjourning Stage
 Forming Stage
Primary Concern
1. They are eager to learn what task they will be performing
2. How they can benefit from group membership
3. What constitute acceptable behavior
4. What rule must be followed.

The Storming Stage

stage when conflict within the group happens.
The Norming Stage
This is when the group really begins to come together as coordinated unit.

The Performing Stage

the group emerges as a mature,organized and a well functioning group
and its r ready to focus on accomplishing its key tasks.This stage is also
referred to as the total integration stage.
Performing Stage Two Different Substage
1. The substage where the group has attained level of effectiveness
that will remain more or less constant and as such,group
performance will be maintained at a level of sufficient to ensure
survival.
2. The Sub stage where the process of learning and development of
the group is on going so that group effectiveness and efficiency
continues and as a result group performance will reach higher
levels
 The Adjourning Stage
Involves the termination of activities

The Termination of the group’s activities may be

triggered by any of the following
1. When the group’s purpose has been fulfilled
2. When the group has failed to revitalize itself during performing
stage.
 FORMING

ADJOURNI
NG

STORMING

PERFORMI
NG
NORMING

The Stages of Group Development

 Roles Within Groups
1. Knowledge Contributor
2. Process Observer
3. People Supporter
4. Challenger
5. Listener
6. Mediator
7. Gate Keeper
8. Take Charge Leader
Advantage of Groups
1. More Inputs from various perspectives can be made
available for effective decision making,
2. Synergism is more likely when people work together
as a group
3. People in the groups are more supportive of decisions
that were formulated with their assistance
4. It allow the efficient exchange of information for
effective public solving
5. The opportunity for fulfilling the safety,affiliation and
esteem needs of group member is available
6. Group Members get mutual support from each other
Disadvantage of Groups
1. Group activity is usually slower and more cumbersome because
every member has the opportunity to make contributions
2. Group meetings are held to disseminate strictly routine data
that could be more efficiently conveyed in writing through
interoffice memoramdun.
3. The group’s decision may be diluted by every member ‘s input
making the decision ineffective
4. Accountability is often problem with group activity.
5. There are occasions when some member shrink responsibility
and let other members of the group do the work
6. When the work is highly cohesive and motivated outside
criticism tends to be ignored as group members look inwarrd
reinforcement of each other’s opinions.
Group Think
deterioration of mental efficiency,reality testing and moral
judgment in the interest of group cohesiveness.

How to minimize Group Think

1. Monitoring Group Size, so it will now grow large enough to
intimidate some members to perform well
2. Encouraging group leaders to play an impartial role by actively
seeking input from all members and avoid expressing their own
opinions especially in the early stage of deliberation
3. Appointing a member to play a the role of evil’s advocate
4. Using exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse
alternatives without threatening the group and intensifying
identity protection
 Techniques in Group Decision Making
1. Interacting groups
2. Brainstorming
3. Nominal group technique
4. Electronic Meeting

Interacting Groups
 are typical groups in which members interact with each other
face-to-face
 Essence of interaction through oral, written and non verbal
communication.

Brainstorming
A group problem solving technique which promotes creativity by
encouraging members to come up with any ideas no matter how
strange without fear of criticism.
 In Brainstorming the participants are required to observe the
following
1. Generate as may idea as possible
2. Be creative,freewheeling and imaginative
3. Build upon,extend,or combine earlier ideas
4. Withhold Criticism of others’ ideas
Nominal Group Technique
 Group of decision making method in which individual
members meet face-to-face to pool their judgments In a
systematic but independent fashion.

Discrete Steps are undertaken in the Nominal group Technique

• Individual members quietly list their ideas
• Ideas are written on chart one at a time until all ideas are listed
• Briefly time is alloted so that questions can be asked but only for
clarification
• A written vote is taken and the group of decision is announced.
Electronic Meeting
Electronic meeting is a decision-making
technique wherein members interact through
computers,allowing anonymity of comments
and aggregation of votes.

Work Teams
is a formal group comprised of people interacting
very closely together with a shared commitment
to accomplish agreed-upon objective
Difference between Workgroups and Teams
A workgroup is one that interact primarily to
share information and to make decision to
help each member perform with his or her
area of responsibility
Groups Emphasize individual
leadership,individual accountability and
inividual work products
Teams emphasize shared leadership,mutual
accountability,and collective work products
 Type of Teams

1. Problem-Solving Teams
2. Self-Managed Work Teams
3. Cross-Functional Teams
4. Virtual Teams

Problem Solving Teams

 Group of 5 to 12 employees from the same department
who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of
improving quality,efficiency and work environment
 Member of Problem-Solving Teams share ideas or offer
suggestions on how processes and methods can be
improved
Self-Managed Work Teams
Is one that is empowered to make decisions about
work schedules , task allocations, job skills,
performance evaluation, selection of new team
members, and controlling quality of work.

The advantages of self managed work teams are :

1.Improved flexibility of staff
2.The reduced number of job classification result to
more efficient operation
3.Absenteeism and turnover rates are lower
4.Organizational commitment and job satisfaction
are at higher levels.
The Disadvantage of self-managed work teams
are :
1.Implementing the concept take times(as long as
several years)
2.The cost of training the team member is high
3.There are inefficiencies created during the
training period
4.Some employees are not able to adapt to a
team structure.
Cross Functional Teams
is one composed employees from about the same
hierarchical levels ,but from different work areas, who come
together to accomplish a task.

The advantage of a cross functional team is that it allows people

from different units to perform the following:
1. Exchange information
2. Develop new ideas
3. Solve problems
4. Coordinate complex projects

The main disadvantage is that it consumes much times as the members

learn to work with diversity and complexity
Virtual Teams
are those that use computer technology to tie together
physically dispersed members in order to achieve a
common goal .
Virtual Teams can meet without concern for space,time,or
physical presence.
A major disadvantage of virtual team is the high cost of the
required supporting technology and training.
Developing Effective Teams
1. Team size must be kept as small as possible.The larger the team the
more difficult it would be to manage it
2. The team members must have sufficient range of
skills,information,and/or experience to do the task.
3. Team members must have a sense of common purpose like the
feeling that what the are doing is critical to the success of the
organization
4. The team must be free to develop its work procedure
5. The team must have a sense of accountabilty
Turning Individuals Into Team
Players
1.Selection
2.Training
3.Rewards

Potential Team Problems

1. Changing Membership
2. Social Loafing
Changing Membership
Member may drop out temporarily or permanently
for reason like
1. Transferring to a higher priority project
2. The occurrence of a personal problem requiring
extended leaves of absence
3. Accepting job in another Company
The higher the membership turnover is,the
bigger is the team’s problem.To address such
concern,the team must learn to manage its
internal turnover through the following:
1.Recognition of the potential problems
brought by high turnover
2.Developing of a plan for managing turnover
3.Thinking through how best to integrate new
member
Social Loafing
Refer to the tendency for individual to expend less effort when
working collectively than when working individually.

Reason of Social Loafing

1. The members think their contribution is less noticeable
2. The members prefer to see others carry the workload
To minimize or eliminate social loafing some means of identifying
individual efforts must be provided.It may be proper to consider
first whether the team approach is appropriate for the task at
hand
1. The nature of the task
2. The qualifications and desires of the participants
3. The time and cost constraint.
LEADERSHIP
Leadership
The process of guiding and directing the
behavior of people in the organization in order
to achieve certain objectives

The Difference between Leadership and Management

1. Managers are rational problem solvers while leaders are
intuitive more visionary;
2. Managers perform other administrative function such as
planning,organizing,decision making and communicating
3. Leaders are primarily concerned with result ;managers are
concerned with the efficiency of results
4. Leaders obtain their power from below,managers obtain
theirs from above.
 KINDS OF LEADERSHIP
1. Formal
2. Informal

Formal Leadership
Refers to the process of influencing others to pursue official
objectives

Informal Leadership
Process of influencing others to pursue unofficial objectives
Power of the leader
1.Position Power
2.Personal Power

Position Power
Consist of:
1.Legitimate Power
2.Reward`Power
3.Coercive Poer
Legitimate Power
Also referred to as authority,this power emanates from as person’s
position in the organization

CHARACTERISTIC OF LEGITIMATE POWER

1. It is invested in a person’s position
2. It is accepted by subordinates
3. Authority is used vertically
Reward Power
This power emanates from one’s ability to grant rewards to those
who comply with a command or request.

Coercive Power
This power arises from the expectation of subordinates that they
will be punished if they do not conform to the wishes of the leader
 Types of Power TYPES OF POWER IN
ORGANIZATION

POSITION PERSONAL

EXPERT
LEGITIMATE POWER
POWER

REWARD REFERENT
POWER POWER

COERCIVE
POWER
Personal Power
1. Expert Power
2. Referent Power

Expert Power. An expert who possess and can dispense valued

information generally exercise expert power over those in need
of such information.

Referent Power.This power refers to the ability of leaders to

develop followers from the strength of their own personalities

Theories of Leadership
1. Trait Theories
2. Behavioral Theories
3. Contingency Theories
 LEADERSHIP
THEORES
LEADERSHIP THEORIES

TRAIT BEHAVIORAL CONTINGENCY

OHIO STATE
YUKL
UNIVERSITY
STUDIES
STUDIES

MANAGERIAL
UNIVERSITY OF GRID OF BLAKE
MICHIGAN AND MOUTON
STUDIES
CONTINUUM OF
LEADERSHIP PATH-GOAL
CONTINGENCY
BEHAVIOR MODEL(HOUSE
LEADERSHIP
(TANNENBAUM AND MITCHELL)
MODEL
AND SCMIDT
(FIEDLER)

LEADERSHIP NORMATIVE
HERSHEY-
BLANCHARD MEMBER DECISION MUCZYK-
SITUATIONAL EXCHANGE MODEL(VRO REINMANN
LEADERSHIP APPROACH OM MODEL
(GRAEN) AND`JAGO)
TRAITS THEORIES
-Consider leader to possess common
traits.
-Early researchers on leadership
placed emphasis on traits and had
resulted in the determination of
a wide span of personal attributes
such as physical appearance,
intelligence , and self confidence.
It was found out that the average person who occupies a
position of leadership exceeds the average number of his
group to some degree on the following factors :

1. Sociability
2. Persistence
3. Initiative
4. Knowing how to get things done
5. Self Confidence
6. Alertness to and insight into situation
7. Cooperativeness
8. Popularity
9. Adaptability
10. Verbal Facility
Later, researchers guided by their findings , drafted a
more general view of what good leaders have in common
. These consist of the following :

1. Extraversion – individuals who like being around

people and are able to assert themselves.
2. Conscientiousness – individuals who are disciplined
and keep commitments that they make.
3. Openness- individuals who are creative and flexible
4. Emotional Intelligence-individual who are able to
understand and manage their personal feelings and
emotions,as well as their emotions towards other
individuals,events and objects.
A single statement that describes what trait
theories assume is that “leaders are born
than made”
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
• These theories propose that specific behaviors
differentiate leaders from nonleaders.
• Four theories related to leadership behavior:
1. The Ohio State University Studies
2. The University of Michigan Studies
3. The Yuki Studies
4. The Managerial Grid
Ohio State University Studies
• An important leadership research program was
started at Ohio State University during the late
1940s.
• The researcher sought to identify independent
dimensions of leader behavior.
• Two Categories that substantially accounted for
most of the leadership behavior described by
employees.
1. Initiating Structure
2. Consideration
Initiating Structure refers to the extent to which a
leader is likely to define his or her role and those
of employees in the search for goal attainment.
The leader with high initiating structure tendency
focuses on goals and results, so he or she might be
seen as similar to a production-oriented
supervisor.
• Structure is initiated by activities such as
assigning specific task , specifying procedures to
be followed , scheduling work, and clarifying
expectation.
• Consideration describe the degree to which the
leader creates an environment of emotional
support, warmth, friendliness, and trust. The
leader’s behavior would be one that is friendly
and approachable , looking out for the personal
welfare of the group, keeping the group
informed about new developments and doing
small favors for group member.
• The findings of the Ohio studies
indicate that successful leaders are
those that are engaged not in one of
the two behaviors but in both
(initiating and consideration)
University of Michigan Studies
• The University of Michigan were also making
attempts to locate behavioral characteristics of
leaders that appeared to be related measures of
performance effectiveness.
The Effectiveness Criteria used are as
follows:
• Productivity for work hours or other similar
measures of the organization’s success in
achieving its production goals.
• Job satisfaction of members of the organization.
• Turnover,absenteeism, and grievance rates
• Costs
• Scrap loss
• Employee and managerial motivation
In the course of their studies, the
researchers identified two distinct style
of leadership :
• Job-centered
• Employee-Centered
Job centered managers set tight work standard,
organized tasks carefully, prescribed work methods
to be followed and supervised closely.
Employee-centered managers encouraged group
members to participate in goal setting and other
work decisions, and helped to ensure high
performance by engendering trust and mutual
respect.
• The researchers found out that the most
productive work groups tended to have leaders
who were employee-centered rather than job
centered.
Yulk Studies (Gary M.Yulk)
• Specific behavior of leaders for varying
situations :
1. Performance Emphasis
2.Consideration
3. Praise Recognition
4. Decision Participation
5. Training Coaching
6. Problem Solving
7. Work Facilitation
8. Inspiration
9. Structuring reward contingencies
10.Autonomy Delegation
11.Role Clarification
12. Goal Setting
13. Information Dissemination
14. Planning
15. Coordinating
16. Representation
17. Interaction Facilitation
18. Conflict Management
19. Criticism Discipline
Managerial Grid
• The managerial grid is a graphic is a graphical
portrayal of a two dimensional view of leadership
developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton.
• It is an approach to understanding a manager ‘s
concern for production and concern for people.
• 1,1 Impoverished Manager, also referred to as
the laissez-faire . Leaders in this position have
little concern for people or productivity , avoid
taking sides , and stay out of conflicts.
• 1,9 Country Club Manager , Leaders in this
position have great concern for people and little
concern for production , They try to avoid
conflicts and concentrate on being well-liked .
To them ,no task is more important than good
interpersonal relations . Their goal is to keep
people happy.
• 9,1 Authority obedience manager . Leaders in this
position have a great concern for production and little
concern for people . They desire tight control in order
to get tasks done efficiently.
• 5,5 Organization man manager, also called middle of the
road manager . Leaders in this position have medium
concern for people and production.They attempt to
balance their concern for both people and production ,
but are not committed to either.
• 9,9 Team manager , The leadership style of this
manager is considered to be ideal.He has a great
concern for both people and production.He work to
motivate people to reach their highest levels of
accomplishment
Contingency Theories
• The trait and behavioral theories failed to point
out that leadership situations are not similar, and
it is easy to presume that there is no single
leadership style that will fit all situations.
• The individual researchers share a fundamental
assumption : successful leadership occurs when
the leader’s style matches the situation.
The various theories related to the situational
approach to leadership consists of the following :
• Continuum of Leadership Behavior- by
Tannebaum and Schmidt
• The Contingency Leadership Model-by Fiedler
• The Path Goal-by House and Mitchell
• The Hershey-Blanchard Situational Leadership
Theories
• The Leader Member Exchange Approach-by
Graen
• The Normative Decision Model-by Vroom and
Jago
• The Muczyk-Reimann Model
Continuum of Leadership Behavior
• The first contingency model of leadership was
developed by Robert Tannenbaum and Warren
H.Schmidt and is referred to as the continuum
of leadership behavior.
• This model consists of seven alternative ways for
managers to approach decision making
depending on how much participation they want
to allow subordinates in the decision making
process.
The leader’s choice depend on
three factors :
• Forces in the manager
• Forces in the subordinate
• Forces in the situation
Forces in the manager consist of : the
manager’s background ,knowledge,values and
experience.
Forces in subordinate
• In choosing an appropriate leadership
style,the manager must also consider
the forces in subordinate
• The leadership style of greater participation and
freedom can be exercised by the manager if the
subordinates :
1.Are craving for independence and freedom of
action
2. Want to have decision making responsibility
3. Identify with the organization’s goal
4. Are knowledgeable and experienced enough to
deal with the problem efficiently;
5. Have experience with previous managers that lead
them to expect participative management.
Forces in the situation
• The manager’s choice of leadership style must
reckon with the situational forces such as; the
organization’s preferred style , the specific work
group, the nature of the group’s tasks,the
pressure of time and environmental factors.
The Contingency Leadership Model
• This is a leadership model developed by Fred
Fiedler which proposes that effective group
performance depends on the proper match
between the leader’s style and the degree to
which situation favors the leader
To determine how favorable the leadership environment
is, Fiedler maintain that it will depend on three factors :

• Leader-member relations
• Task structure
• Position Power
Leader member relations refer to the degree
of confidence , trust and respect thw followers
have in their leader.
Task Structure refers to the extent to which the
tasks the follower are engaged in are structured.
Task structured is high when the task is clearly
specified and known as to
• Task structure is low when the task is unclear ,
ambiguous or unspecifiable.
• Position Power refers to the power inherent in
the leadership position.Generally greater
authority means greater position power.
• Leader with high position power can easily
influence subordinates , while those with less
position power finds it difficult to perform their
tasks.
• The most favorable favorable situation exists
when there is good leader-member relations,
high task structure, and strong position power.
The Path Goal Method
• This is a leadership model developed by Robert
House and Terrence Mitchell that states that the
leader’s job is to create a work environment
through structure , support and rewards that
help employees reach the organization’s goal
• The two major roles involved are :
1. the creation of a good orientatiom
2. the improvement of the path toward the goals
so that they will be attained.
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
GOALS

Motivated Effective
Employee LEADER Performance
Needs BEHAVIOR Employee

Paths
Towards
Goals
House and Mitchell identified four
leadership behaviors :
• The directive leader. This is the type of leader
who lets followers know what is expected of
them , schedule work to be done, and gives
specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks.
• The supportive leader. This is the type of
leader who is friendly and shows concern for the
needs of floowers.
• The participative leader. This is the leader
who consult with followers and uses their
suggestions before making a decision.
4. The Achievement oriented leader-This is
the leader who sets challenging goal and expect
followers to perform at their highest level.

According to House , leaders are flexible and any

of them can display any or all of these
behaviours depending on the circumstances.
The Hershey-Blanchard Situational
Leadership Theory
• Developed by Paul Hershey and Kenneth
Blanchard , the Situational Leadership Theory
suggests that a leader’s style should be determined
by matching it with the maturity level (or
readiness) of each subordinate.
• The leader must know follower’s readiness and
then use a leadership style that fits the level.
• Readiness refers to the ability and willingness of
subordinates to take responsibility for directing
their own behavior.
Readiness consists of two
concerns:
• Job readiness (or task competence) ; and
• Psychological Readiness (or commitment)

• A person who has high task competence has the

knowledge and abilities to perform the job
without a manager structuring or directing the
work.
• A person who has high commitment has the self
motivation and desire to do high quality work.
• Competence is a function of knowledge and skills
which can be gained from education,training and
experience.It can be developed with appropriate
direction and support.
• Commitment is a combination of confidence and
motivation.Confidence refers to a person’s self-
assuredness-a feeling of being able to do a task
well without supervision.Motivation is a person’s
interest in and enthusiasm for doing a job well
FOUR DEVELOPMENT LEVELS

HIGH SOME LOW

COMPETENCE HIGH COMPETENCE COMPETENCE COMPETENCE

HIGH VARIABLE LOW HIGH

COMMITMENT COMMITMENT COMMITMENT COMMITNMENT

D4 D3 D2 D1

DEVELOPED MODERATE DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPING

• To match the various states of readiness by
subordinates, Hershey and Blanchard devised four
leadership styles available to leaders :
1. A directing style that is best for low follower
readiness. The direction provided by this style
defines roles for people who are unable and
unwilling to take responsibility themselves; it
eliminates any insecurity about the task that must
be done.
2. A coaching style that is best for low to moderate
follower readiness.This style offers both task
direction and support for people who are unable
but willing to take task responsibility;
• Coaching Style involves combining directive
approach with explanation and reinforcement in
order to maintain enthusiasm.
• A Supporting Style that is best for moderate
to high follower readiness. Able but unwilling
followers require supportive behavior in order to
increase their motivation; by allowing followers
to share in decision making,this style help
enhance the desire to perform a task.
• A Delegating Style that is best for high
readiness.This style provides little in terms of
direction and support for the task at hand; it allows
able and willing followers to take responsibility for
what need to be done.
The Leader Member Exchange
Approach
• This refers to the leadership theory developed
by George Graen and his associates which
recognize that leaders develop unique working
relationships with each group member.
• Leaders and their followers exchange
information, resources, and role expectations
that determine their interpersonal relationships.
• The effect of leader-member relations come into
view when the leader, knowingly or unknowingly,
creates in groups and out group within the
organization. Subordinate with in group status will
have higher performance ratings, less turnover,
and greater job satisfaction.
• In- group member have attitudes, and values
similar to those of the leader and interact
frequently with the leader. They are given
additional rewards, responsibility, and trust in
exchange for loyalty and performance.
• Out group members are treated in accordance with
a more formal understanding of supervisor-
subordinate relations . They have less in common
with the leader and operate in a way that is
somewhat detached from the leader.
• The quality of the relationship between the leader
and each group member has important job
consequences . Good relationships can lead to
important effects such as higher productivity and
satisfaction , improved motivation, and smoother
delegation.
Normative Decision Model
• Also known as the “leader participation model”
and “decision making model of leadership”, the
normative decision model was developed by
Victor and Philip Yetton.
• The model views leadership as a decision
making process in which the leader examines
certain factors within the situation to determine
which decision making style will be most
effective.
• Five decision styles are presented by the normative
model, each reflecting a differen.t degree of
participation by group members :
1. Autocratic I - the leader individually solves the
problem using the information already available.
2. Autocratic II – the leader obtains data from
subordinates and then decides.
3. Consultative I – the leader explains the problem to
individual subordinates and obtains ideas from
each before deciding.
4. Consultative II- the leaders meets with group of
subordinates to share the problem and obtain
inputs, and then decides.
5. Group II – the leader shares problem with
group and facilitates a discussion of alternatives
aiming to reach a group agreement on a
solution.
The normative decision model is based on
the following assumption
• The leader can accurately classify problems
according to the criteria offered.
• The leader is able and willing to adapt his or her
leadership style to fit the contingency condition he
or she faces
• The leader is willing to use rather complex model
• The employees will accept the legitimacy of different
style being used for different problems as well as the
validity of the leader’s classification of the situation
at hand
The Muczyk-Reimann Model
• This model was developed by Jan P. Muczyk
and Bernard C . Reimann , and it suggest that
“participation” behavior is concerned with the
degree to which subordinates are allowed to be
involved in decision making.
• Muczyk and Reimann propose that leaders
should be allow to adapt different situation .
This pave the way for delegation which covers
decision making and execution.
 To make delegation effective , four
leadership style are considered :
• The directive autocrat : The leader makes
decision unilaterally and closely supervises the
activities of subordinates.
• The permissive autocrat : This leader make
decision unilaterally but allows subordinates a
great deal of latitude in execution
• The directive democrat : this leader wants full
participation but closely supervises subordinate
activity
• The permissive democrat.This leader allow high
participation in decision making and in
execution.