Geometric Design of Highways &

Roadway Composition
Report by: Group 7
REPORTERS:
ALEGRE, JOSE LUIS
LLEVARES, JEFFORD GOZO
PAMINTUAN,RONNAH GEE
YAYON, PAMELA CLARISSE
CLASICAS,NICOLE GRACE
Geometric Design of
Highways
 Geometric Roadway Design
• The geometric design of roads is the branch
of highway engineering concerned with the
positioning of the physical elements of the
roadway according to standards and constraints.
The basic objectives in geometric design are to
optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing
cost and environmental damage.
 Geometric Roadway Design
• Geometric design also affects an emerging fifth
objective called "livability," which is defined as
designing roads to foster broader community goals,
including providing access to employment, schools,
businesses and residences, accommodate a range of
travel modes such as walking, bicycling, transit, and
automobiles, and minimizing fuel use, emissions and
environmental damage.
 Geometric Roadway Design
• Geometric roadway design can be broken into
three main parts: alignment, profile, and
cross-section. Combined, they provide a
three-dimensional layout for a roadway.
 Alignment
• The alignment is the route of the road,
defined as a series of horizontal tangents and
curves.
 Profile
• The profile is the vertical aspect of the road,
including crest and sag curves, and the
straight grade lines connecting them.
 Cross Section
• The cross section shows the position and
number of vehicle and bicycle lanes and
sidewalks, along with their cross slope
or banking. Cross sections also show drainage
features, pavement structure and other items
outside the category of geometric design.
 Design Standards
• Roads are designed in conjunction with design
guidelines and standards. These are adopted by
national and sub-national authorities (e.g., states,
provinces, territories and municipalities). Design
guidelines take into account speed, vehicle type, road
grade (slope), view obstructions, and stopping
distance. With proper application of guidelines, along
with good engineering judgement, an engineer can
design a roadway that is comfortable, safe, and
appealing to the eye.
 Profile

• The profile of a road consists of road slopes,

called grades, connected by parabolic vertical
curves. Vertical curves are used to provide a
gradual change from one road slope to
another, so that vehicles may smoothly
navigate grade changes as they travel.
 Sag Vertical Curves
• Sag vertical curves are those that have a
tangent slope at the end of the curve that is
higher than that of the beginning of the curve.
When driving on a road, a sag curve would
appear as a valley, with the vehicle first going
downhill before reaching the bottom of the
curve and continuing uphill or level.
Sag Vertical Curves
 Crest Vertical Curves
• Crest vertical curves are those that have a
tangent slope at the end of the curve that is
lower than that of the beginning of the curve.
When driving on a crest curve, the road
appears as a hill, with the vehicle first going
uphill before reaching the top of the curve and
continuing downhill.
Crest Vertical Curves
• The profile also affects road drainage. Very flat
roads and sag curves may have poor drainage,
and steep roads have high velocity flows.
 Alignment
• Horizontal alignment in road design consists of
straight sections of road, known as tangents,
connected by circular horizontal curves. Circular
curves are defined by radius (tightness) and
deflection angle (extent). The design of a horizontal
curve entails the determination of a minimum
radius (based on speed limit), curve length, and
objects obstructing the view of the driver.
 Alignment
• Using AASHTO standards, an engineer works to
design a road that is safe and comfortable. If a
horizontal curve has a high speed and a small
radius, an increased superelevation (bank) is
needed in order to assure safety. If there is an
object obstructing the view around a corner or
curve, the engineer must work to ensure that
drivers can see far enough to stop to avoid an
accident or accelerate to join traffic.
 Cross Section
• The cross section of a roadway can be considered a
representation of what one would see if an excavator
dug a trench across a roadway, showing the number
of lanes, their widths and cross slopes, as well as the
presence or absence of shoulders, curbs, sidewalks,
drains, ditches, and other roadway features. The
cross-sectional shape of a road surface, in particular
in connection to its role in managing runoff, is called
"crown".
 Lane Width
• The selection of lane width affects the cost and
performance of a highway. Typical lane widths
range from 3 metres (9.8 ft) to 3.6 metres (12 ft).
Wider lanes and shoulders are usually used on
roads with higher speed and higher volume
traffic, and significant numbers of trucks and
other large vehicles. Narrower lanes may be used
on roads with lower speed or lower volume
traffic.
 Lane Width
• Narrow lanes cost less to build and maintain,
but also reduce the capacity of a road to
convey traffic. On rural roads, narrow lanes
are likely to experience higher rates of run-off-
road and head-on collisions. Wider roads
increase the time needed to walk across, and
increase storm water runoff.
 Sight Distance
• Road geometry affects the sight distance available to
the driver. Sight distance, in the context of road design,
is defined as "the length of roadway ahead visible to
the driver."Sight distance is how far a road user (usually
a vehicle driver) can see before the line of sight is
blocked by a hill crest, or an obstacle on the inside of a
horizontal curve or intersection. Insufficient sight
distance can adversely affect the safety or operations
of a roadway or intersection.
 Stopping Sight Distance
• Stopping sight distance is the distance traveled during perception-
reaction time (while the vehicle driver perceives a situation
requiring a stop, realizes that stopping is necessary, and applies the
brake), and maneuver time (while the driver decelerates and comes
to a stop). Actual stopping distances are also affected by road
conditions, the mass of the car, the incline of the road, and
numerous other factors. For design, a conservative distance is
needed to allow a vehicle traveling at design speed to stop before
reaching a stationary object in its path. Typically the design sight
distance allows a below-average driver to stop in time to avoid a
collision
 Decision Sight Distance
• Decision sight distance is used when drivers must make decisions
more complex than stop or don't stop. It is longer than stopping
sight distance to allow for the distance traveled while making a
more complex decision. The decision sight distance is "distance
required for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise difficult-
to-perceive information source or hazard in a roadway environment
that may be visually cluttered, recognize the hazard or its threat
potential, select an appropriate speed and path, and initiate and
complete the required maneuver safely and efficiently". Ideally,
roads are designed for the decision sight distance, using 6 to 10
seconds for perception-reaction time and 4 to 5 seconds to perform
the right maneuver.
 Intersection Sight Distance
• ntersection sight distance is the sight distance needed
to safely proceed through an intersection. The distance
needed depends on the type of traffic control at the
intersection (uncontrolled, yield sign, stop sign or
signal), and the maneuver (left turn, right turn, or
proceeding straight). All-way stop intersections need
the least, and uncontrolled intersections require the
most. Intersection sight distance is a key factor in
whether no control or yield control can be safely used,
or more restrictive control in needed.
 Corner Sight Distance
• Corner sight distance (CSD) is the road alignment
specification which provides a substantially clear line of
sight so that the driver of a vehicle, bicyclist or pedestrian
waiting at the crossroad may safely anticipate the driver
of an approaching vehicle. Corner sight provides an
adequate time for the waiting user to either cross all
lanes of through traffic, cross the near lanes and turn left,
or turn right, without requiring through traffic to radically
alter their speed.
 Effects of Insufficient Sight Distance
• Many roads were created long before the current sight distance standards
were adopted, and the financial burden on many jurisdictions would be
formidable to: acquire and maintain additional right-of-way; redesign
roadbeds on all of them; or implement future projects on rough terrain,
or environmentally sensitive areas. In such cases, the bare minimum
corner sight distance should be equal to the stopping sight distance.
While a corner sight distance which far exceed the braking distance at
the design speed should be afforded to the driver, he or she is still
generally required to maintain such control and safe speed as to be able
to stop within the Assured Clear Distance Ahead (ACDA),and the basic
speed rule always applies. Jurisdictions often provide some level of design
immunity against government claims actions, in such cases.
 Effects of Insufficient Sight Distance
• Warning signs are often used where sight distance is insufficient. The Manual on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices requires Stop Ahead, Yield Ahead or Signal Ahead
signs at intersections where the traffic control device is not visible from a distance
equal to the stopping sight distance at speed of approaching traffic. Hill Blocks View
signs can be used where crest vertical curves restrict sight distance. However, many
jurisdictions still expect drivers to use ordinary care regarding conditions readily
apparent to a driver, without the prompting of a sign.[ The care and focus ordinarily
required of a driver against certain types of hazards may be somewhat amplified on
roads with lower functional classification. The probability of spontaneous traffic
increases proportionally to the density of access points, and this density should be
readily apparent to a driver even when a specific access point is not. For this reason,
full corner sight distance is almost never required for individual driveways in urban
high-density residential areas, and street parking is commonly permitted within
the right-of-way.
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Pamintuan, Ronnah Gee C.
 Horizontal alignment is one of the most important
features influencing the efficiency and safety of a
highway. A poor design will result in lower speeds and
resultant reduction in highway performance in terms of
safety and comfort. In addition, it may increase the cost
of vehicle operations and lower the highway capacity.
DESIGNER CONSIDERATIONS
 Existing environmental and  The relationship of the
other constraints should be roadway to wetlands and
identified on the base waterways and the interaction
mapping to assist the designer of different types of roadway
in minimizing impacts to drainage with these resources
wetlands, historical and should be considered.
archaeological features,
 For improvements to existing
private and protected
roadways, geometry should
property, and permanent
be concentric with and/or
structures. To the extent
parallel to the existing
possible, these constraints
roadway layout so that new
should serve as boundaries
impacts to the surrounding
through which the designer
area are minimized.
must fit the geometry.
 Horizontal alignment should
be as smooth and as direct as
possible while responsive to
the topography. Flatter
 If compound circular curves
curvature with shorter
tangents is generally
preferable to sharp curves
connected by long tangents.
Angle points should be
avoided.
 Broken back curvature (a
short tangent between two
curves in same direction)
should be avoided because
drivers do not expect to
encounter this arrangement
on typical highway geometry.
 Abrupt reversals in alignment
and sharp curvature on long,
high fills should be avoided.
are required in an effort to fit
the highway to the terrain or
to other constraints, large
differences in radius should be
avoided. The radius of the
largest curve should not be
more that 1.5 times the radius
of the smaller curve (except
for highway ramps). On ramps,
the ratio of the larger curve to
the smaller curve should not
exceed 2:1.
 The horizontal alignment should be in balance with the vertical
profile and cross section rotation associated with superelevation.
This is accomplished through the use of a cross sectional analysis.
Under this analysis procedure, the alignment is plotted onto the
cross section to the lines and grades dictated by the geometry.
Should the impacts on the existing topography, private property,
environmental areas, etc. be significant for successive cross
sections, then modification to the vertical and horizontal geometry
should be considered to minimize the impacts, thereby optimizing a
balanced geometric design.
 Horizontal curves should be avoided on bridges whenever possible.
These cause design, construction, and operational problems. Where
a curve is necessary on a bridge, a simple curve should be used on
the bridge and any curvature or superelevation transitions placed
on the approaching roadway.
HORIZONTAL CURVES
 Horizontal curves are provided in each and every point of
intersection of two straight alignments of highways in order to
change the direction. The direction change should be gradual to
ensure safety and comfort to the passengers. The necessity of curve
arises due to the following reasons:
 Topography of the terrain
 Restrictions imposed by property
 Providing access to certain locality
 Restrictions by some unavoidable reasons of land
 Restrictions by certain religious, monumental or some other structures
 Making use of existing right of way
 Minimizing earthwork quantity
 Preservation of existing amenities
 Maintaining consistency with the topographical features of the terrain
 The application of horizontal curves enhances comfort
to the passengers by avoiding the sudden change in
direction and reduces mental strain by travelling
monotonously along the straight route. In addition, it
makes the driver more alert while travelling along the
curved path which helps to reduce road accidents. This
also plays an important role in speed control and
compels the driver to maintain the speed of vehicle
within a reasonable limit.
TYPES OF CURVES
 Simple circular curves: It consists of a single arc connecting two
straight lines
 Compound circular curves: It consists of series of simple circular
curves of one or different radius that turns in the same direction and
meet at the common tangent point
 Reverse circular curves: It consists of two or more arcs of one or
different circles turning in two opposite directions that join at the
common tangent point.
HORIZONTAL STOPPING SIGHT
DISTANCE
 Horizontal sight distances on the inside of a curve is limited by
obstructions such as buildings, hedges, wooded areas, walls, abutments,
cut slopes, headlights, vertical curvature, or topographic features. A
comprehensive field survey should identify these obstructions on the
critical cross sections and on the base plans.
 Safe sight distance must be provided on the inside of horizontal curves to
allow the driver sufficient break reaction time to bring the vehicle to a
stop. Obstructions which interfere with the needed sight distance should
be moved or removed, if possible. If the obstruction can not be
removed, consideration should be given to realigning the road or
providing appropriate warning signage.
SUPERELEVATION
 Superelevation is the banking of a roadway around a curve. The
purpose of employing superelevation of the roadway cross section is to
counterbalance the centrifugal force, or outward pull, of a vehicle
traversing a horizontal curve. Side friction developed between the tires
and the road surface also counterbalances the outward pull of the
vehicle. A combination of these two concepts allows a vehicle to
negotiate curves safely at higher speeds than would otherwise be
possible.
 Incorporating superelevation into a roadway’s design may help
avoid roadside obstacles that might otherwise be impacted by the
alignment. In contrast, superelevation may not be desirable for low-
speed roadways to help limit excessive speeds or in urban settings
to limit impacts to abutting uses or drainage systems and utilities.
Moreover, superelevation may not be desirable when considering
pedestrian or bicycle accommodations along the roadway
segment. Like other roadway design elements, designers must
consider the trade-offs of introducing superelevation in a roadway’s
design.
ROADWAY COMPOSITIONS
LANES
• a lane is part of a roadway (carriageway) that is designated for use
by a single line of vehicles, to control and guide drivers and reduce
traffic conflicts.
• Some roads and bridges that carry very low volumes of traffic are
less than 15 feet (4.6 m) wide, and are only a single lane wide.
• In rural areas, these are often called country lanes.
• In urban areas, alleys are often only one lane wide.
• Urban and suburban one lane roads are often designated for one-
way traffic.
• The selection of lane width affects the cost and performance of a
highway.
• Typical lane widths range from 3 metres (9.8 ft) to 3.6 metres
(12 ft).
• Wider lanes and shoulders are usually used on roads with higher
speed and higher volume traffic, and significant numbers of trucks
and other large vehicles.
• Narrower lanes may be used on roads with lower speed or lower
volume traffic.
 TYPES OF LANES
• Merging lanes • Slip lanes
 TYPES OF LANES
• Median turning lanes • Truck lanes
 TYPES OF LANES
• Trucks use left lane • Bicycle lanes
 TYPES OF LANES
• S lanes • Light rail lanes
TYPES OF LANES
• Bus lanes • Buses only lanes • Buses only lanes
PEDESTRIAN LANES
-is a place designated for pedestrians to cross a road.
Crosswalks are designed to keep pedestrians
together where they can be seen by motorists, and
where they can cross most safely across the flow
of vehicular traffic.
PAVEMENT
• Pavement is finished with a hard smooth surface.

TYPES OF PAVEMENT
• RIGID PAVEMENTS -are made of cement concrete either plan,
reinforced or pre-stressed concrete
• FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT can be defined as the one consisting of
a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous material and
aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular
material of appropriate quality in layers over the
subgrade.