ECE 2795 Microgrid Concepts and Distributed Generation Technologies

ECE 2795
Microgrid Concepts and Distributed

Generation Technologies
Spring 2015
Week #13
© A. Kwasinski, 2014
Microgrids and grid interaction
• Microgrids could have a grid interconnection to
• Improve system economics
• Improve operation
• Improve availability
• With a suitable planning, grid planning can benefit from having

microgrids by
• Reducing conductor’s size
• Improving availability
• Improving stability
• Tools, strategies and techniques for an effective integration of a

microgrid into the main grid:
• Net metering – bi-directional power flow.
• Peak shaving
• Advanced communications and controls
• Demand response (?)
• Interconnection practice / recommendation: IEEE standard 1547
• Potential issues with microgrids integration into the main grid:

• Infrastructure long term planning / economics:
• There is no coordination in planning the grid and
microgrids.
• The grid is planned on a long term basis considering
traditional loads.
• Microgrids may “pop-up” afterwards “without notice.”
• Grid’s planning links economic (cost of grid’s electricity,
future demand…..) and technical aspects (line congestion….)
• Stability: microgrids are variable loads with positive and

negative impedance (they can act to the grid as generators)
• More potential issues with microgrids integration into the main grid:
• Safety: When there is a fault in the grid, power from the
microgrid into the grid should be interrupted (islanding)
• Availability: Microgrids can trigger protections (directional

relays) upstream in the grid and interrupt service to other loads
• Key issue: microgrids are supposed to be independently controlled

cells within the main grid.
• How much independence microgrids should have?
• Does independence apply also to planning?
• How much interaction / communications should be
between the grid and the microgrid?
• Example of microgrid development. Initial condition.
• Equipment and
financial planning is
done with all the load
in the figure in mind.
• Example of microgrid development. Planning issues. A microgrid is installed few years
later.
Transformers
and
conductors
can now be
oversized
(remember
this aspect
for PEV and
PHEV
integration)
Microgrid’s area
• Example of microgrid development. Initial normal power flow direction
Directional
Relay
• Example of microgrid operational issues. New power flow with a microgrid.
• The microgrid’s
power trips open the
directional relay
• Is it possible to
change the grid’s
state fast enough to
prevent voltage
collapse due to loss
of stability caused by Directional
the sudden load Relay • What microgrid’s
changes introduced control action
by the microgrid? follows?
• Can the microgrid
stop injecting power
back into the grid
(i.e. prevents
islanding)?
Microgrid’s area
• Example of microgrid operation. Islanding.
• If islanding occurs
the microgrid will
continue to provide
power to a portion of
the grid even though
the grid connection
upstream has been
interrupted.
• Potential issues: “Island”

• Utility crews
safety.
• Power quality
at the energized
portion could be
poor. Loads
could be
damaged.
Microgrid’s area
• Grid interconnection might be different for dc or ac microgrids
• For ac microgrids, grid interconnection can be done directly, with a
disconnect switch, and a transformer only.
• For dc microgrids an inverter is necessary
• Examples:
CERTS microgrid (ac) NTT Facilities Sendai project (ac and dc)
• dc microgrids integration with the grid
• The interface may or may not allow for bidirectional power flow.
Bidirectional power flow can be needed for:
•`Energy storage
• dc loads
Smart grids
• There are two similar but not equal approaches to the smart grid
concept.
• EU-led vision (customer and environmentally driven):

• Europe’s electricity networks in 2020 and beyond will be:
• Flexible: Fulfilling customers’ needs whilst responding to the
changes and challenges ahead;
• Accessible: Granting connection access to all network users,
particularly for renewable energy sources and high efficiency
local generation with zero or low carbon emissions;
• Reliable: Assuring and improving security and quality of supply,
consistent with the demands of the digital age;
• Economic: Providing best value through innovation, efficient
energy management and ‘level playing field’ competition and
regulation.
“European Technology Platform SmartGrids. Vision and Strategy for Europe’s Electricity Networks of the Future”
European Commission KI-NA-22040-EN-C EUR 22040
Smart grids
• US led vision (security
and consumer driven)
- Motivated by needs in
availability improvements
“The NETL Modern Grid Initiative A VISION FOR THE MODERN GRID”, US DOE
The smart grid concept
• There are many views of what is In reality, a smart grid is not a single
concept but rather a combination of technologies and methods intended
to modernize the existing grid in order to improve flexibility, availability,
energy efficiency, and costs.
• Smart Grid 1.0:

• Smart meters
• Smart Grid 2.0 (“Energy Internet”

enabler):
• advanced autonomous controls,
• distributed energy storage,
• distributed generation, and
• flexible power architectures.
• Distributed generation (DG), flexible power architectures, autonomous

controls and loads constitute local low-power grids (micro-grids).
Smart grid evolution: Past
• Centralized
operation and control
• Passive
transmission and
distribution.
• Lack of flexibility
• Vulnerable
Smart grid evolution:
Present/immediate future
• Still primarily centralized
control.
• Limited active distribution
network (distributed local
generation and storage). Use
of virtual storage (demand-
response)
• Addition of communication
systems
• More efficient loads
• Flexibility issues
• Somewhat more robust

Smart grid evolution: Future
• Distributed operation
and control
• Active distribution
network (distributed local
generation and storage).
• Integrated
communications
• Advanced more efficient
loads
• Flexible
• More robust
Smart grids
• Technologies and concepts:
• Distributed energy resources (generation and storage) are
fundamental parts. They provide the necessary active characteristics
to an otherwise passive grid.
• Advanced and distributed communications. All the grid components

are able to communicate. The grid operates like a power-Internet
(distributed, multiple-redundant, interactive and autonomous). I.e. a
Power-Net.
• Intelligent metering.
• Policies and regulatory actions. Necessary to achieve integration of

all the parts. Inadequate pricing models is a significant barrier to
introduce service-based business models (vs. energy-based).
• Grid modernization.
The Power-Net
• DOE view for a smart grid:
- “An electrical grid is a network of
technologies that delivers
electricity from power plants to
consumers in their homes and
offices.”
• A Power-Net expands this

view based on paradigms
from the Internet.
• Some features compared with

conventional power grids:
more reliable, efficient, and
flexible.
The Power-Net
• Like the Internet, the Power-Net
involves diverse and redundant
path for the power to flow from
distributed generators to users.
Its control resides in autonomous
distributed agents.
• Power is generated in distributed
generators, usually from
alternative or renewable energy
sources. Power buffers are
included to match generators
and loads dynamics. Energy
buffers are added to make
variable sources dispatchable.
• Contrary to the Internet, the
Power-Net involves a local
approach for power interactions.
The
• Desired Internet features: Internet
• distributed and autonomous control,
• diverse information routing and redundant data or application
storage,
• performance degradation instead of full failure,
• link transmission rate control through temporary data storage
in buffers.
M = B.T
Buffer Link Maximum

size bandwidth (delay) time
Extending the Internet into
Smart grids
• Key aspect: add distributed generation (fuel cells, microturbines, PV
modules, small wind, reciprocating engines) close to the load to make
power grids distribution portion an active electric circuit.
• Autonomous and distributed controls can be implemented with DG.
• Power vs. Energy buffers:

Predicted solar radiation Batteries
on PV module (Energy buffer)
W = P.T
Ultracapacitors
or flywheels
(power buffer)
Control and communication issues
• Coordination is needed in order to integrate variable generation sources (such
as PV modules) in the grid.
• Centralized control requires significant communication resources (i.e., large
bandwidth spectrum allocation) which in general is not available.
• The alternative is to provide all active nodes with an autonomous control that
allows controlling power interactions with the grid without dedicated
communication links. These more intelligent nodes become agents.
VS.
Power Supply Resilience
• In the past, several issues were identified in conventional power grids
that affect their availability, particularly during natural disasters.
• Conventional power grids were shown to be very fragile systems.
• Some of the issues found in conventional power grids include:

• Primarily centralized control and power distribution architecture.
• Passive power distribution grid
• Lack of redundancy in most sub-transmission and distribution
paths.
• Difficulties in integrating meaningful levels of energy storage.
• Power supply issues during disasters is a grid’s problem transferred to

the load.
Power Supply Resilience
• Smart grid planning for disaster resiliency must consider disaster

impact on lifelines. During disasters special attention should be paid to
dissimilar ways in which disasters affect different distributed generation
(DG) technologies.
• Renewable sources do not have lifelines but they are not dispatchable,
they are expensive, and they require large footprints.
• Most DG technologies have availabilities lower than that of the grid.
• DG needs diverse power supply in order to achieve high availabilities.
• DG provides a technological solution to the vulnerable availability point
existing in air conditioners power supply.
•DG provides the active component to grid’s distribution portion,
essential for advanced self-healing power architectures.
Extending the Internet into
Smart grids
• Lifeline dependencies can be reduced by extended local energy
storage. Lifeline’s effects on availability can be mitigated with diverse
local power generation.
• PVs and wind do not require lifelines but their variable profile leads to
added DG or extensive local energy buffers.
• Performance degradation: voltage regulation or selective load
shedding.
• Advanced (active) distribution through power routing interfaces
Advanced Power Architectures
Power routers
Monitoring points
• A hybrid ac (solid lines) and dc (doted lines) architecture with

both centralized and distributed generation resources.
Part 2
Grid-Microgrids
Interconnection
Motivation
• Reasons for connecting a microgrid to a main grid:
• Availability: Highly available power grids may act as an additional
source for micro-grids.
• Operations/stability:
•Direct connection of ac microgrids to a large power grid
facilitates stable operation but only if the power grid acts as a
“stiff” source to the microgrid.
• When using renewable energy sources, a grid connection may
allow reducing the need for energy storage in the microgrid.
• If not all loads in a microgrid are critical, a grid connection may
allow to reduce the investment in local generation.
• Economics:
• Microgrids are typically planned with extra capacity with respect
to the local load. This extra power capacity can be injected back
into the grid in order to obtain some economic benefit.
• Grid interconnection allows to reduce fuel operational costs by
using the grid at night when electricity costs are low.
Definitions
• Point of common coupling (PCC): it is the point in the electric circuit
where a microgrid is connected to a main grid.
Standards
• There are several standards specifying various aspects grid
interconnection of a local power generation source. Arguably the most
important one is IEEE 1547.
• IEEE 1547 has several parts:
• Main body
• IEEE Standard 1547.1 “IEEE Standard Conformance Test Procedures for Equipment
Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems.”
• EEE Standard 1547.2 “IEEE Application Guide for IEEE Std 1547™, IEEE Standard for
Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power Systems.”
• IEEE Standard 1547.3 “IEEE Guide for Monitoring, Information Exchange, and Control of
Distributed Resources Interconnected with Electric Power Systems.”
• IEEE Standard 1547.4 “IEEE Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed
Resource Island Systems with Electric Power Systems.”
• IEEE Standard 1547.5 has not been issued, yet. Its intended scope is to address issues
when interconnecting electric power sources of more than 10 MVA to the power grid.
• IEEE Standard 1547.6 “IEEE Recommended Practice for Interconnecting Distributed
Resources with Electric Power Systems Distribution Secondary Networks.”
• IEEE Standard 1547.8 has not been issued, yet. Its intended scope is to provide
supplemental support for implementation methods for expanded use of the previous
standards, for example when addressing issues with high penetration of residential PV
systems.
Standards
• Main provisions from IEEE 1547:
• The micro-grid must “not actively regulate the voltage at the PCC.”
• The grounding approach chosen for the local area power and energy system (LAPES) must
not create overvoltages that exceed the ratings of the equipment connected to the main grid or
must not affect ground fault protection coordination in the main grid.
• The distributed resources in the LAPES must be able to parallel with the main grid “without
causing voltage fluctuations at the PCC greater than ±5% of the prevailing voltage level of the
Area electric power system (EPS) at the PCC” and flicker must be within acceptable ranges.
• The LAPES must not energized the main grid when the main grid is not energized.
• Each distributed resource (DR) “unit of 250 kVA or more or DR aggregate of 250 kVA or more
at a single PCC shall have provisions for monitoring its connection status, real power output,
reactive power output, and voltage at the point of DR connection.”
• A visible-break isolation device must be located between the main grid and a DR unit only
when required by the main grid provider practices.
• The interconnection system must meet applicable surge and EMI standards.
Standards
• When a fault occurs in the main grid circuit to which a LAPES is connected, then the micro-
grid local power generation units must stop to power this circuit before reclosure from the main
grid happens.
• The interconnection system must be able to measure relevant indicated voltages and
frequencies at the PCC or the point of connection of DR and disconnect within a given allowed
time all local power generating units in the micro-grid when these measured voltages or
frequencies fall within a range specified in a table in this standard. For example, when
voltages fall below 50 % of the base voltage, the LAPES must disconnect its DR within 0.16
seconds (one 60 Hz cycle). The time extends to 2 seconds for voltages between 50 and 88 %
of the base voltage. Disconnection must occur within 1 second if measured voltages are
between 110 and 120 % of the base voltage and within 0.16 seconds if the voltage exceeds
120 % of the base voltage. For frequency measurements, any DR of 30 kW or less must
disconnect 0.16 seconds if the measured frequency is above 60.5 Hz or below 59.3 Hz. The
same disconnect time applies for DR of more than 30 kW when the frequency exceeds 60.5
Hz, but for the lower range at these power levels disconnect within 0.16 seconds must occur if
the frequency falls below 57 Hz, whereas disconnection is adjustable between 0.16 and 300
Hz if the frequency falls between 59.8 and 57 Hz.
• Reconnection of a LAPES to a main grid may occur at least 5 minutes after voltages and
frequency fall within indicated required ranges.
Standards
• Reconnection of a LAPES to a main grid may occur at least 5 minutes after voltages and
frequency fall within indicated required ranges.
• A microgrid must “not inject dc current greater than 0.5% of the full rated output current” at
the PCC.
• Harmonic current injection by the LAPES into the main grid measured at the PCC must not
exceed certain levels both in total and for given harmonic order ranges. The total demand
distortion must not be more than 5 % of the local main grid “maximum load current integrated
demand (15 or 30 minutes) without the DR unit, or the DR unit rated current capacity,”
whatever is greater. Base of this same base current, harmonic content for harmonics with an
odd order below 11 must not exceed 4 %. If the odd harmonic order is between 11 and 17 the
limit is 2 %, whereas this limit falls to 1.5 % for odd harmonics with an order between 17 and
23 and 0.6 % for odd harmonics with an order between 23 and 35. For odd harmonics with an
order above 35, the harmonic content with respect to the indicated current must not exceed
0.3 %. For even harmonics their content limits are a quarter of those indicated for the odd
harmonic orders.
Standards
• Other important provisions from IEEE 1547.6 about network
protections (NP) on the grid’s side:
• The presence of DR should not:
- “cause any NP to exceed its fault-interrupting capability.”
- “cause any NP to operate more frequently than prior to DR operation.”
- “prevent or delay the NP from opening for faults on the network feeders.”
- “delay or prevent NP closure.”
- “require the NP settings to be adjusted except by consent of the area EPS

operator.”
- “cause an islanding condition within part of a grid network.”
Interconnection methods and
technologies
• Interconnection methods:
• Directly through switchgear
• Power electronic interfaces
• Static switches
• Directly through circuit breakers:

• Relatively simple and inexpensive
• Slow (3 to 6 cycles to achieve a complete disconnection).
• Since electrical characteristics on both sides of the circuit breakers
must be the same, then, electrical characteristics on the micro-grid
side are dependent on the grid characteristics. For example, use of
a circuit breaker implicitly limits the micro-grid to have, at least
partially, an ac power distribution system in order to match the grid’s
electrical characteristics.
• Power flow through the PCC cannot be controlled
technologies
• Directly through circuit breakers:
• Example of one of such systems:
• Use of static switches:

• Usually based on SCRs in antiparallel configuration to allow
bidirectional power flow
technologies
• They are costlier and more complex than using circuit breakers.
• Usually, conventional circuit breakers are still used to provide a
way to achieve full galvanic isolation. A Bypass switch is also added
for maintenance reasons.
technologies
• They allow for many open/close operations
• They act much faster than conventional circuit breakers (in the
order of half a cycle to a cycle). Sometimes IGBTs are used instead
of SCR because IGBTs tend to be faster than SCRs and their
current is inherently limited.
• Still power flow cannot be controlled.
• There are some conduction losses in the devices.
technologies
• Power electronic interfaces:
• It is the costlier option but it is also the most flexible one.
• Allow for power distribution architecture characteristics on both
sides of the PCC to be completely different.
• Both real and reactive power flow can be controlled.
• Reaction times to connection or disconnection commands are
similar to those provided by static switches, although in the case of a
power electronic circuit, it response also depends on its dynamic
performance, given by its controller, topology, and internal energy
storage components characteristics.
• Still, in many cases, a circuit breaker will still be required at the
grid-side terminal of the power electronic interface with a microgrid
in order to provide a way to physically disconnect the micro-grid from
the grid.
• Also, similarly to static switches, the presence of a power
electronic circuit will lead to some power losses not found in the
approach using mechanical interfaces.
Islanding
• In IEEE Standard 1547.4 an intentional island is said to be the result
of “intentional events for which the time and duration of the planned
island are agreed upon by all parties involved.”
• There are several reasons why intentional island operation of a micro-
grid may occur, but a common one is a preemptive disconnection from
the grid in anticipation of a power outage on the main grid side caused
by an event that can be anticipated, such as an incoming hurricane or
storm, or wildfires. The advantage of this intentional islanding operation
instead of waiting for the outage in the main grid to occur in order to
switch the microgrid to operate in islanding mode is that an intentional
islanding allows for a controlled transition that prevents potential failures
or quality issues in the micro-grid.
• Two phases can be distinguished in islanded operation:
• transition from grid connected to island operation
• operation isolated from the grid.
Islanding
• During the transition into island operation it is important that:
• voltage disturbances are quickly dampened and that protection
schemes both inside the microgrid and in the grid are not affected.
• When the transition is completed it is important that

• the micro-grid has sufficient local power generation and energy
storage in order to ensure that loads are powered with the agreed
quality level. For example, in ac micro-grids it is important that
distributed resources are able to provide real and reactive power to
the specified load range. This is particularly important in order to
avoid loss of stability if there are large motors in the microgrid that
require significant amounts of reactive power during startup
• Also for ac micro-grids, their control systems must be able to
regulate both voltage and frequency within acceptable ranges. In dc
micro-grids, neither frequency regulation nor reactive power
generation are issues to consider.
Islanding
• Eventually, it can be anticipated that the micro-grid would be
connected to the main grid again. Grid connection of dc micro-grids or
ac micro-grids with a power electronics interface with the main grid
tends to be simpler than the case of ac micro-grids connected to the
main grid through circuit breakers, contactors, or static switches
because in the dc micro-grid and the ac micro-grid with a power
electronics interface cases reconnection control resides only in this
power electronic interface. That is, the controller in this power electronic
interface would controlled in order to realize on its grid side some
voltage waveform so its amplitude, frequency and phase angle are
within specified limits to allow reconnection.
• In the other ac micro-grid cases—those directly connected to the main
grid though mechanical switchgear or static switches—reconnection is
more complicated because there is no possibility of directly controlling
the voltage waveforms at the PCC. In this case, ensuring that the
voltage, frequency and phase angle are within acceptable limits depend
on how the microgrid distributed resources are controlled.
Islanding
•According to IEEE Standard 1547.4 these approaches can be
distinguished in this case of ac micro-grids in order to achieve a
successful reconnection:
• Active synchronization: In this approach, the microgrid controller matches the voltage
signal on the PCC micro-grid side to those of the PCC on the grid side immediately
before closing the islanding devices, such as a circuit breaker. Implementation of this
approach requires measuring these three voltage signal parameters—amplitude,
frequency and phase angle—on both sides of the PCC. A communications channel in
order to exchange information between the micro-grid and the main grid is also
necessary. This need for sensing and communications may lead to a higher failure rate
as the sensing and communications subsystems may become a single point of failure.
• Passive synchronization: In this approach a device is used to monitor the voltage at
both sides of the PCC and allows the microgrid to connect to the main grid only when
the voltage signal on the microgrid side is within some given required range of the main
grid analogous voltage parameters. Like the active synchronization approach, passive
synchronization requires sensing and communications, leading to the same potential
reliability concerns. In addition, this method may be slower than active synchronization.
• Open transition: This approach is more basic than the other two, because the method
involves connecting both ends of the PCC after interrupting disconnecting the microgrid
load. Once the micro-grid is connected to the grid then this load is brought back online.
Islanding
• According to IEEE Standard 1547.4, un-intentional islanding
operations are “inadvertent events that are typically initiated by loss of
area EPS or equipment failure, and the DR island system may be
automatically sectionalized from the area EPS by protective equipment.”
• Once the island has been established, the same considerations that were
considered for the intentional island condition applies to the un-intentional island.
• Contrary to the case of intentional islanding, during an un-intentional island it is not
possible to prepare the microgrid for such transition, such as verifying that there is
sufficient local generation to sustain a stable operation powering all loads. Hence, in
case it is expected that local generation capacity may be insufficient to sustain the
load during un-intentional islands, black start functions or standby generators with
transfer switches have to be allocated within the microgrid.
• Once the issue in the main grid that led to loss of service to the micro-grid feeder
is solved, it may be of interest to reconnect soon the main grid to the micro-grid.
However, such connection cannot occur until the voltage and frequency of the grid
are stable and within acceptable ranges. In order to ensure meeting such
requirement, a delay of up to five minutes may be provided between the time power
is restored at the PCC from the main grid and the time reconnection to the microgrid
is established. © A. Kwasinski, 2014

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ECE 2795

Microgrid Concepts and Distributed

• With a suitable planning, grid planning can benefit from having

• Tools, strategies and techniques for an effective integration of a

• Potential issues with microgrids integration into the main grid:

• Stability: microgrids are variable loads with positive and

• Availability: Microgrids can trigger protections (directional

• Key issue: microgrids are supposed to be independently controlled

• Potential issues: “Island”

• EU-led vision (customer and environmentally driven):

• Smart Grid 1.0:

• Smart Grid 2.0 (“Energy Internet”

• Distributed generation (DG), flexible power architectures, autonomous

• Somewhat more robust

• Advanced and distributed communications. All the grid components

• Policies and regulatory actions. Necessary to achieve integration of

• A Power-Net expands this

• Some features compared with

Buffer Link Maximum

• Autonomous and distributed controls can be implemented with DG.

• Power vs. Energy buffers:

• Conventional power grids were shown to be very fragile systems.

• Some of the issues found in conventional power grids include:

• Power supply issues during disasters is a grid’s problem transferred to

• Smart grid planning for disaster resiliency must consider disaster

• A hybrid ac (solid lines) and dc (doted lines) architecture with

- “cause any NP to exceed its fault-interrupting capability.”

- “cause any NP to operate more frequently than prior to DR operation.”

- “delay or prevent NP closure.”

- “require the NP settings to be adjusted except by consent of the area EPS

- “cause an islanding condition within part of a grid network.”

• Directly through circuit breakers:

• Use of static switches:

• When the transition is completed it is important that

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