BTY222 Lecture 4

Cell cycle
Mitosis-Meiosis
 Course design
Different levels of complexity

DNA DNA DNA DNA

Primary 2ndary 3tiary 4nary structure
structure structure structure

Mitosis cell
Meiosis Individual/
families

Groups
Transmission of genetic material
•In eukaryotes, transmission of genetic material
from one generation of cells to the next involves
mitosis and meiosis

•Meiosis leads to production of gametes

•Mitosis leads to production of two cells, each

with the same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell
 Mitotic transference of genetic material
•During the lifespan of an organism, numerous cell divisions occur from
the formation of the zygote.

•We have approx. 3 trillion cells in our body (3 x 10 12)

• after cell division, the cellular components (DNA as well !) are

distributed into 2 daughter cells
 Cell division .. (cont)
• The continuity of genetic information is secured with the transference
of chromosomes (Morgan 1915; Nobel Price 1933 Lecture 1)

• the cell architecture adapted for cell division.

cytoskeleton
 Chromosomes:
• Chromosomes exist in homologous pairs in diploid
organisms in somatic cells (body cells) of any given
species
– E.g.: Humans: 46 chromosomes (23 homologous pairs)

• Homologous chromosomes are similar

…not identical
– May carry different versions of the same gene
 chromosomes
Human karyotype

Human diploid number 2n =46

haploid number n = 23

GENOME OF A SPECIES: GENETIC

INFORMATION CONTAINED IN AN
Heterogametic sex = male HAPLOID SET OF CHROMOSOMES
chromatides
Locus (pl . = loci)
Specific site along a specific chromosome
p arm
Alleles: possible variants at a locus
observed for a species.
q arm
Mitosis
 Cell cycle ( cell division cycle)

Duplication of DNA (DNA replication) and division of cytoplasm and

organelles to produce two daughter cells

1 hr
3’ 3’ 18’
36’
The cell volume is doubled
5 hrs
Cells withdraw
3 hrs from cycle

-quiescent
-senescent

Source : http://www.bristol.k12.ct.us/page.cfm?p=7093 7 hrs

 Mitosis
Prophase

DNA condenses
Migration of centrioles
microtubules start to grow From lecture 2:

Sister chromatides kept

together by cohesin

Chromatides
are “glued”
together
Prophase-Prometaphase chromosome
 Mitosis
Prometaphase: chromosome migration
Metaphase: configuration
spatial positioning

Nucleus membrane disappeared

Spindle attaches to kinetochore

Cohesin starts to disintegrate, degraded by

separase

Chromosomes locate in a plane

perpendicular to spindle axes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinetochore
 Mitosis
Anaphase: chromosome migration
DISJUNCTION

Sister chromatids disjoin

http://www.youtube.com/watch?NR=1&v=Q6ucKWIIFmg&feature=fvwp
 Mitosis
Telophase

2 complete set of chromosomes in each pole

Cytokinesis: partition of cytoplasm

Nuclear membrane appears

Chromosomes start to uncoil

 Is the
spindle in
Cell cycle
good
condition? check points
 Q1?

1. If an organism has a diploid number of 20,

how many chromatides are visible at the
end of mitotic prophase?

2. How many chromosomes are migrating to

each pole during anaphase?
 Q2?
Which miotic phase is shown? provide labels and identify a
feature to support your observation
 Meiosis
Cell division that reduces the amount of
genetic material by one-half to produce
haploid cells with one haploid set of
chromosomes in gametes and spores.

Meiosis is the basis of genetic continuity

from generation to generation in sexually
reproducing organisms.
Meiosis

- Chromosomes replicate once

- Nuclear division occurs twice

In the first division Meiosis I:

Chromosomes are moving to opposite poles

In the second division Meiosis II:

Chromatids are moving to opposite poles
 Meiosis
Meiosis I is a reductional division
Meiosis II is an equational division

Meiosis I Homologous chromosomes pair up

4 chromatids = bivalent = tetrad

Dyad = 2 sister chromatids

G1 S G2 Prophase I MI AI TI 2nd division

 Prophase I

long, unassociated Synapsis, Chiasma are

bivalent of Tetrads,
chromosomes Chromatids are visible.
homologous
chromosomes visible Crossing over
between non-
sister chromatids
 Prophase I
Prophase I has five substages, each including specific events:

Leptonema( thin and delicate ):

chromatin begins to condense, chromomeres

Zygonema (conjugation): rough pairing, synaptonemal complex

Pachynema (Fat): bivalents, 4 chromatids, tetrad

Diplonema (double): sister chromatids separate, chiasmas

Diakinesis (double movement): separation of homologous

chromosomes, chiasmas, nucleolus and nuclear membranes break
down.
 Meiosis I
Metaphase: tetrad interacts with spindle
tetrads aligns in the metaphase plate

Anaphase: migration of ½ tetrad (dyad)

error = non-disjunction
gives origin to aneuploidy
cohesin between sister chromatides is digested except in the centromere

paternal and maternal dyads migrate at

random towards the poles

Telophase: nuclear membrane forms around dyads

 Meiosis II
Result of Meiosis: haploid set of chromosomes
with 2 chromatids (the information for each
chromosome is duplicated)
Prophase II: dyads (sister chromatids) attached by centromere

Metaphase II: position on the central plate

Anaphase II : sister chromatids migrate to different poles

Telophase II: each chromosome in the poles is a monad

gametogenesis

Cells with haploid

number of dyads

Cells with haploid

number of
chromosomes

Humans: process
stops at Prophase I, 5th
month intrauterine life
 Mitosis vs Meiosis

Monads:
paternal + maternal
information

2 diploid cells 4 haploid cells

 Sources of
variation in
sexual
reproduction

Number of
different combinations = 23
 Meiosis I
Independent assortment
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT OCCURS:
Orientation of homologous pair to poles is random

Variation: how many possible combinations?

Formula: 2n
Example: 2n = 4
then n=2
thus there are 22 = 4 possible combinations
 Sources of genetic variation

1.Meiosis produces gametes with unique combination of

maternally and paternally derived chromosomes
(independent assortment of Mendel)
2. Crossing over: mosaics of paternal-maternal chromosomes

Q2:
if so… we are a mosaic of DNA of many different
people (ancestors)
How many people carried (part of) our DNA 10
generations ago?
 Q3

How many chromosome configurations can occur

after meiosis I if 3 different pairs of chromosomes
are present ?
AmAp
A Am p
A, D, T = chromosomes
m
D A p
D Dm p m, p = maternal or paternal origin
m
T T p T T
m p
 Q4

An organisms has a diploid number of 20 in a primary oocyte.

1.How many tetrads are present in the meiotic prophase I ?

2. How many dyads are present in the meiotic prophase II ?

3. How many monads migrate to each pole during meiotic

anaphase II ?
 Q5

Do sister chromatids in meiosis II

carry identical genetic information?
 Other links
Detailed explanation/ good graphs
http://jpkc.scu.edu.cn/ywwy/zbsw%28E%29/edetail11.htm

Mitosis vs meiosis
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_IzfJSxa-uA

Meiosis square dance

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JKXAdwCibsA

Meiosis animation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vA8aMpHwYh0
 questions
1. How do you define GENOME?
2. What are homologous chromosomes?
3. What is a locus?
4. What are alleles?
5. What are the phases of the cell cycle ?
6. What is the end result of meiosis?
7. Where does meiosis occur ?
8. What are the regulatory points of the cell cycle, what is the cell checking for?
9. Mention the sources of genetic variation in sexual reproduction

Cover photo source:

http://mitomeio.pbworks.com/w/page/11356657/The%20Process%20of%20Meiosis
 Chromosome mutations
or aberrations
Although most diploid species normally
contain precisely two haploid chromosome
sets, there are many known variations:
1. a change in the total number of chromosomes
2. the deletion or duplication of genes or segments
of a chromosome
3. rearrangements of the genetic material either
within or among chromosomes
1. Variation in chromosome numbers:
1. Variation in chromosome numbers, cont..:

Aneuploidy : an organism gains or loses one

or more chromosomes and has other than
an exact multiple of the haploid set.
The organism gains or looses one or more
chromosomes but NOT THE COMPLETE SET.

Chromosomal variation can arise from

nondisjunction, in which chromosomes or
chromatids fail to disjoin and move to opposite
poles during meiosis I or II
 Non-disjunction during meiosis: the origin of
aneuploidy in humans
fertilization
After
The loss of a single chromosome may
have severe phenotypic effects.

Monosomy for the X chromosome occurs

in humans.

Monosomy for any of the autosomal is

usually not tolerated in humans and
other animals.

Aneuploidy is better tolerated in plants.

Syndromes determined by aneuploid
conditions

(47,XXY) : Klinefelter syndrome

(45,X): Turner syndrome monosomy condition
2n-1

Trisomy (2n + 1 chromosomes)

Others: Trisomies for autosomes are often lethal
(48, XXX) For the sex chromosomes has a less dramatic
impact on the phenotype
(47, XYY)
(47, 21+) Down syndrome, trisomy of chr 21
disjunction failure in meiosis I
1.b. Euploidy: variation in the number of copies of the
haploid set of chromosomes

Polyploidy: More Than Two Haploid Sets of

Chromosomes Are Present, Is Prevalent in Plants

The naming of polyploids is based on the

number of sets of chromosomes found:
a triploid has 3n chromosomes
a tetraploid has 4n chromosomes
a pentaploid has 5n chromosomes
and so forth
Polyploidy

Polyploidy can originate by

the addition of one or more sets of
chromosomes identical to the haploid
complement of the same species
(autopolyploidy) or
the combination of chromosome sets
from different species as a consequence
of interspecific matings (allopolyploidy)
Polyploidy
 Autopoliploids
8x , 10x
3x

4x
 Notation for polyploids
A = a1 + a2 + a3 + ……..+ an

• A = 1 set of haploid chromosomes

• a1, a2, etc indicate the individual chromosomes
• n is the haploid number

If two or more species are involved, the different

haploid sets are given different capital letters: e.g.
AABB is an allotetraploid
Figure 8-11 The origin and
propagation of an amphidiploid.
Species 1 contains genome A
consisting of three distinct
chromosomes, and Species 2
contains genome B consisting of
two distinct chromosomes, and
Following fertilization between
members of the two species and
chromosome doubling, a fertile
amphidiploid containing two
complete diploid genomes
(AABB) is formed.

allotetraploid individual
Endopolyploidy is the condition in which
only certain cells in an otherwise diploid
organism are polyploid.

In these cells, replication and segregation of

chromosomes occur without nuclear division.

e.g. : vertebrate liver cells (4n, 8n, 16n)

guts of mosquito larvae : 16n