Department of Environment and Natural Resources

Mines and Geosciences Bureau – Cordillera Administrative Region

Geological Hazards
(GEOHAZARDS)
Benigno Cesar L. Espejo
OIC, Geosciences Division
Outline

• Definition of terms
• Philippine Geology and Tectonics and Weather systems
• Hydrological Hazards
• Mass movement (landslides)
• Seismic Hazards
• Hazards in Karst Terrains
Definition of terms

Hazard: “ a source of danger”

Risk: “The chance of loss to lives and damage to property”

“Risk = Hazard x (People + Property)”

Source: Webster New Collegiate Dictionary

geological phenomena
naturally occurring
pose danger to people’s lives, properties,
infrastructure, and communities
cannot be totally prevented, but can be
mitigated (negative impacts on
people’s lives and properties, and the
environment can be reduced)
Classes of Geohazards

• Natural
• are geologic processes which
adversely affects humans and
properties.
• Example:Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo
Classes of Geohazards
• Anthropogenic
• results from activities that accelerate or alter normally
benign natural processes into problems.

• Differ from natural ones in that humans both affect a

geologic process and then are adversely affected by its
results.

Cherry Hills Landslide

Why is the Philippines prone to geologic
hazards ????
 Philippine Geology and Tectonics
Because of our geographic location
within the Circum-Pacific “Ring of Fire”
TECTONIC AND GEOGRAPHIC SETTINGS OF THE PHILIPPINES

EQUATOR
 TRANSFORM DIVERGENT CONVERGENT

Types of Plate Boundaries

SEA FLOOR SPREADING

AND SUBDUCTION
• Numerous active Faults and Trenches
• Numerous volcanic belts and active volcanoes
• Generally mountainous terrain and steep slopes
22 active,
27
potentially
active and
more than
400 inactive
volcanoes
Weather system Numerous typhoons and extended rainy seasons.

Along the
PACIFIC
TYPHOON
BELT, a
pathway for a
large number
of TROPICAL
CYCLONES

On average,
the
Philippines is
hit by about
20 storms and
typhoons a
year.
Exacerbated by

 Silted rivers and clogged waterways in urban areas.

Active sedimentation

VINTAR, ILOCOS NORTE BACARRA TOWN, ILOCOS NORTE

 Infanta, Quezon, 2004

 Denuded forests

Iloilo, 2008
 Poor selection of settlement sites.

Bakakeng North Baguio City Commonwealth, Quezon City

Four major geological hazards identified in
the region

1. Hydrological Hazard (Flooding)

2. Mass movement (landslides)
3. Seismic Hazards (Earthquake)
4. Hazard in Karst Terrains
 Hydrological hazards
• Flooding
- PAGASA defines flooding as “an abnormal progressive rise in the
water level of a stream that, may result in the overflowing of
water above the normal confines of the stream causing the
inundation of areas which are not normally submerged”
Sinkhole at Dominican Road,Baguio City

Flooded
Sinkhole at
Dominican,
Baguio City
 What is flood?

“Too much water at the ‘wrong’ place!”

 What causes flooding?

Heavy rainfall Dam or dike failure

Storm surge (coastal areas)

 METRO MANILA (September 26, 2009)
Heavy rainfall Typhoon Ondoy
FLOODING DUE TO HEAVY RAINFALL

City Camp Lagoon, Typhoon Pepeng,

Oct.2009
 Dam or dike failure

Botolan, Zambales (August 2009)

 Types of Flooding:
1. According to location

River flooding (River floodplains)

Coastal flooding (Shorelines)
Urban flooding (Paved roads & grounds)

2. According to duration

Flash flooding (upstream floods)

Sheet flooding (downstream floods)
 RIVER FLOODING
Dingalan, Aurora, Dec. 2004

In CAR, this could be experienced by the low lying communities along the
major river systems.
RIVER FLOODING

Source; Google Earth Images

 COASTAL FLOODING

storm surge - water that is pushed toward the

shore by the force of the winds
swirling around the storm.

in Surigao City June 2004

 Storm surge (coastal areas)

Zamboanga City Nov. 28,2007; Typhoon Mitang

 Mga Lugar na Madalas Magbaha

Ilog at sapa

Lawa dalampasigan
Flashfloods

A flash flood is a dangerous type of flood that occurs within 6 hours

or even an hour after the start of rainfall.
Floods of short duration with relatively high peak discharge
Types: natural and induced

natural flashfloods: induced flashfloods:

 Strictly of short duration Basins of any shape
 Basins with circular shape Formation and then breaching of temporary dams e.g. log jams
 Occurring regularly and /or earth debris along the river course (e.g. Agos River, Infanta,
 Merges into sheet floods Quezon)
Timbaban River,
Madalag, Aklan

4 meters
 Flash FLOODS

Timbaban River,
Madalag, Aklan -
Straightening of River Channel
Shifting River Channel

Infanta, Quezon
 SHEET FLOOD

- covers a large area and is not

concentrated in a well-defined
channel

- floodwater does not easily subside

Pulilan, Bulacan
Dec. 2, 2004
FLOODPLAIN
- the relatively
smooth valley
floors adjacent to
rivers which are
subject to
overflow.
 Urban flooding

Manila
August 15,
2007;
Typhoon Egay
 Cainta, Rizal Phuket, Thailand
September 27, 2009 December 26, 2004
(REUTERS/Erik de Castro) (Hellmut Issels)

Sanhi ng
pagbaha

1. Natural na sanhi
Heavy Rainfall Tsunami

Tacloban, Leyte
November 10, 2013
Sto. Tomas River, San Narciso, Zambales (Manila Bulletin/ Bullit Marquez)
Post Mt. Pinatubo Eruption

Heavy Siltation Storm Surge

 Maling paggamit ng lupa at espasyo Maling pagtatapon ng basura

2. Gawa ng tao

Cainta, Rizal
September 27, 2009
(REUTERS/Erik de Castro)

Mabilis na pag-unlad at urbanisasyon

 Iligal na pagkakahoy at pagkakaingin

Botolan, Zambales (August 2009)

2. Gawa ng tao

Pagkasira ng dam o dike

Epekto ng Urbanisasyon
2 WAYS TO MITIGATE
FLOOD HAZARDS

• STRUCTURAL

• NON-STRUCTURAL
STRUCTURAL MITIGATING MEASURES
• Levees, Dikes
• Channel modifications

•Floodwalls

•Dams
DRAWBACK:
COSTLY!
 NON-STRUCTURAL MITIGATING MEASURES
•Land use planning (floodplain zoning) maintain buffer zones

Should buildings be sited in flood-prone locations, they should be elevated

above expected flood levels.
 An “adaptive” lifestyle

Dry Season

Wet Season
 NON-STRUCTURAL MITIGATING MEASURES

• Community awareness & preparedness using flood

hazard maps.
Mass movement (landslides)

• Downslope movement of rock, soil, or artificial fill under

the influence of
.

Not always fast !

Triggering mechanisms

Heavy rainfall !!!

Contributing factors

•Shallow rooted
vegetation

•Weak soil & rock

material

•Fractured rocks

•Sloping ground/
Steep slopes

Bgy Cabugo- Claver, Surigao Del Norte

Why is CAR prone to landslides?
1. Steep Slopes

About 90% of the region is

characterized by steep to
very steep slopes.

Generally, the steeper the

slope the more liable it is to
be unstable and more prone
to mass movements

SLOPE MAP OF CAR

 Several landslide
occurrences are in
areas having
steep slopes
underlain with by
highly weathered
rocks.

Mayag, Bauko, Mt. Prov.

2. Removal of Vegetation

Vegetation provides cover that

cushions the impact of rain
falling on the slope; has roots
system that tend to provide an
apparent cohesion to the slope
materials.

Forested Areas being converted

to agricultural and residential
uses

Buguias, Benguet
 No landslide despite cogon
grass vegetation only
Landslide despite thick
vegetation

Vegetation vs. slope angle

3. Weakening of previously strong rock by
weathering

* Role of water : saturation of

earth materials causes a rise in
pore water pressure
 Fault
4. Presence of relict
structures
• Joints
(fractures),
bedding planes, Joints (fractures)
faults
• Beds of plastic
and Bedding planes
impermeable
soils
• Hydrothermally
altered rocks
due to ascent
of mineralizing
solution during
ore formation
 GEOLOGIC MAP OF CAR

The complex fault system which

constitute the northern splay of the
Philippine fault zone have greatly
disturbed the underlying rock
formations thereby reducing their shear
resistance. Though these served as
passageways for mineralizing solutions
which brought about various mineral
deposits the region is noted for, it also
resulted to alteration of the host rocks
thereby reducing their weathering
resistance
5. Overloading of slope surfaces by

Weight of rain, rock debris,

dead trees, garbage dumps,
buildings, houses, stockpiles

Improperly built
houses, aggravating
instability of steep
slopes, causing
slope failure
SOME AGGRAVATING FACTORS:
 SOME AGGRAVATING FACTORS:
Excavation of the slope

San Vicente, Baguio City Lexber Subdivision at Camp 7, Baguio City

Construction of
houses on steep
slopes

Water leakage
from utilities
Overloading of
slope surfaces
 Poor upland agricultural practices

Slash and
burn
activities
Inappropriate
mining
practices
TYPES OF
LANDSLIDES

1.Fall
2.Slide
3.Flow
Examples of Landslides in the CAR
Creep

imperceptible, slow, downward

movement of slope materials as
indicated by curved tree trunks,
tilted poles or fences and small
soil ripples

Bent trunk of Pine tree, Buyog Watershed,Baguio

Rockfall

Broken
angular
blocks
pulled by
gravity

BAGUIO CITY

Barangay Gambang , Bakun

 Toppling

- Planar blocks of rocks

that tilts or rotate forward
and subsequently bouncing
or rolling downslope.
Debris slide

- Rapid downslope
movement of loose
soil, rocks and
organic matter.

Debris Slide, Camp 6,

Kennon Road, Baguio
Rock Slide
Is rapid sliding of a mass of bedrock
along an inclined surface of weakness
such as bedding and fault plane. It
usually occur on highly fractured rock
mass and unsupported slope toe.

An example of rock slide that

occurred at Camp 6
destroying part of the house
and killing two person in the
process.
SLUMP in Mankayan, Benguet (October 2000)

•Deep rotational
slides (rock or
soil).
•Slumps leave
arcuate scars or
depressions on the
hill slope.
 Old landslide
scar (Slump)
Sayangan, Atok,
Benguet
Mudflow

An earthflow
consisting of
materials wet
enough to flow
rapidly and
contains at least 50
% sand-silt and
clay-sized particles

Kibungan Village, Puguis, La Trinidad, Oct.2009

 Example of Complex Mass
Barangay Balatoc
Movement: Combination of
Planar Slip, Rotational Slip,
and Debris Flow

Photo showing an active landslide

area just below Barangay Balatoc,
Pasil, Kalinga. 200 houses with 1900
population are at high risk. Rice fields
were also affected by the landslide.
Cherry Hills (August 1-3, 1999) More than 50 people died and
hundreds of houses were destroyed as a result of the incident.
The complex slide started out as a slump and developed into a
debris flow near the base.
Learn to recognize signs
of an impending landslide.
Doors or windows stick or jam for the
first time.

New cracks appear in plaster, tile, brick

or foundations.

Outside walls, walks or stairs begin

pulling away from
the building.

Slowly developing, widening cracks

appear on the
ground or on paved areas such as
streets or driveways.

Mankayan, Benguet
Fences, retaining
walls, utility poles,
or trees tilt or move.
Presence of
Terracetes

CREEP in Kolalo
Elementary School,
Mankayan, Benguet
(February 2001)
June 5, 2009

Mankayan National
high School
Grounds

June 9, 2009
Springs, seeps, or saturated ground
in areas that have not typically been
wet before.
 GOOD LUCK SA
You will hear a AKIN!!!!
faint rumbling
sound that
increases in
volume as the
landslide/debris
flow approaches.
Lessons
Avoid
settlement at
the base of
steep and
unstable
slopes.
Expansion
residential area at
Camp 6, Tuba,
Benguet which is
within a talus
deposit. Note the
landslide prone
area above and the
lack of effective
drainage system.
Baguio City,
September 2008-
residential house built
at the base of a steep
slope was buried by a
landslide killing 2
individuals

Lesson:
Avoid Settlements
above, below and
along steep
slopes.

Fairview, Baguio City

 Progressive landslide

Residential
structures (encircled)
threatened by a an
active landslide
situated directly
above

Dwellings threatened
by an active landslide

Kias Area 2
Pinut-an, Panaoan Is., Leyte, Dec. 2003

Most of the houses at Sitio Luneta/

Avoid settlements Antamok are situated along the
narrow river valley as shown in the
at the mouth of/or picture above. Lower photo shows
along deeply the houses which were affected by
incised rivers the landslide along the river channel
during Typhoon Pepeng.
Purok 8, Pinsao, Baguio City.

The house that tilted above was

built on a thick, clayey soil with
inadequate drainage
Implement
mitigating measures
when constructing
buildings adjacent
to existing
structures.
Protect excavations
immediately to prevent
landslide of the upper
areas
Photo showing the
close proximity of an
on-going construction
of the housing
cooperative Bldg.A.
Notice the unit of Mr.
Guerzon slightly tilted
and the misaligned
beam.
Implement
mitigating
measures when
constructing
buildings adjacent
to existing
structures.

Protect excavations
immediately to prevent
adjoining houses/ lots being
affected
SLIDE AT KISAD
ROAD

VIOLATION :
SECTION 301 OF
PD 1096
(EXCAVATION
OFENGR. AQUINO)
 Lesson:
recurring
problem “let
nature take
its own
course”.
Old landslide
deposits will likely to
be remobilized again
causing damages to
residential houses.

Barangay Loakan,
Itogon, Benguet was
built on a old landslide
area. Yellow lines
indicates old/ancient
landslide escarpment.
Landslide prone terrains

Seismically active regions.

Mountainous environments.
Degraded lands.
Areas subject to frequent periods of intense rainfall
Areas subject to rapid development.

CAR has all these “ingredients”

WHAT CAN BE DONE?
HOW CAN WE MINIMIZE THE EFFECTS OF
LANDSLIDES?

1. STRUCTURAL MITIGATION

2. NON-STRUCTURAL MITIGATION
1. STRUCTURAL MITIGATION
- aimed at controlling the hazard

“PAKAPITIN”
“SALUHIN”
“PADAANIN”
“BAWASAN”
“TAPALAN”
“IWASAN”
 “PAKAPITIN”
After

Before

Rib Concreting
Pasig City
STRUCTURAL MITIGATION
 “PAKAPITIN”
Marcos Highway, Baguio City Benguet

Shotcreting
 “PAKAPITIN”

Mesh and Soil Nailing

 “SALUHIN”

Riprap
Nets
 “PADAANIN”
Trench
Drains

Shield

SHIELD

Slide Flume
Marcos Highway
 “BAWASAN”

Santa, Ilocos Sur

“BAWASAN”

Steep slopes can be

graded into gentler slopes.

Stable slope angle

 “IWASAN”
August 1999

Mahaplag, Southern Leyte

March 2001

Gully erosion
Artist’s perspective of a bridge
to cross slide area
BUT………. EXPENSIVE !!!
 2. NON-STRUCTURAL MITIGATION
- aimed at decreasing
vulnerability and adjusting to
the hazard
-Land use planning; community
development
-Coordination between
infrastructure developers/builders
and geohazard mapping
authorities

1. Use of geohazard maps

Landslide
Susceptibility Map
of Baguio City
Quadrangle

2. Drafting of policies,
regulations, etc.
3. Emergency response
programs and disaster
mgmt
Installation of Warning Signs on Geologically
Hazardous Areas
Production of IEC Materials

Production of Video Compact Disc for distribution of

LGU’s, Schools and Other Government Agencies.
Information Education Campaign (IEC)/
Lectures
Production of Geologic Hazard Posters and Pamphlets
Issuance of Landslide
Threat Advisories on
Areas prone to
Landslides.
80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt
most of these result from convergent margin activity
Frequency of
Earthquakes in the
Philippines?

Approximately 20
quakes/day

4 – 5 felt
earthquakes/week
PHILIPPINE DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKES
Magnitude = 5.9 - 8.4

•M8.3 02 Jul 1954 Bacon, Sorsogon (13/101)

1619 - 1998
•M7.5 01 Apr 1955 Lanao (291/713)
•M7.3 02 Aug 1968 Casiguran (270/600)
•M7.3 07 Apr 1970 Baler (15/200)
•17 Aug 1976 Moro Gulf (3,739/8,000)
•16 July 1990 Luzon (1,283/2,786)
•15 November 1994 Mindoro (>100)
FOCUS vs. EPICENTER
Strength --- Magnitudes

Magnitude Is mathematically
calculated using the amount of
duration of movements of the
ground as recorded by a
seismograph.
 The INTENSITY of an
earthquake is measured by:
what people see and
feel during the event

severity and extent of damage

to buildings/structures

condition of ground
failure and the
presence of other
earthquake hazards
associated during
the event

Different intensity scales were used in the evaluation of Philippine earthquakes particularly in the SEASEE compilation.
 • whole numbers
• decreases with distance
from epicenter

1 – Scarcely perceptible
2 – slightly felt
3 - weak
4 – moderately strong
5 – strong

6 – very strong
7 – destructive
8 – very destructive
9 – devastating
10 – completely devastating
 Earthquake /
Seismic Hazards

Defined as the risk of

injury or death to man and
damage of his works by
ground motion caused by
earthquakes
Earthquake Generators
Surrounding CAR

Manila Trench
East Luzon Trough –
Philippine Trench
Philippine Fault Zone
 0 50 100 km

Earthquake Generators N Pacific

Surrounding CAR
Ocean

Abra River
South
China
Sea

Manila Trench
 Northwest segments of the Baguio City
Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ):
- Digdig Fault – Abra River Fault
- Vigan-Aggao Fault
- Bangui Fault
- San Manuel-Pugo Fault
-Tebbo (Itogon) Fault
-Tuba River Fault

* La Trinidad Fault (Balili River

Fault)
Digdig
Fault
Tebbo (Itogon)
Fault
Tuba
River
Fault
La Trinidad Fault
(Balili River Fault)
San Manuel-Pugo Fault
Vigan-Aggao Fault
Abra River Fault
(200 Km long)
Types of Earthquake
Hazards
1. Ground Acceleration

Horizontal or vertical
ground shaking during
earthquakes. Its
intensity depends on
the magnitude of the
earthquake
GROUND SHAKING
2. Ground Rupture

Displacement or deformation
which normally occurs along
the zone of weaknesses like
faults or lineaments

Imugan River
near Digdig, N. Vizcaya
 GROUND RUPTURE

Pilapils (rice paddy dikes) in Imugan, Nueva Vizcaya displaced left-laterally

by the ground rupture of the 1990 Northern Luzon Earthquake.
GROUND
RUPTURE
16 July 1990
Northern Luzon
Earthquake:

Uplifted rice paddies

GROUND
RUPTURE
GROUND RUPTURE
GROUND RUPTURE
3. Differential Settlement Amount of Settlement

Gradual downward movement

of an engineering structure
(building, road, bridge, etc.)
due to compression of the soil
overburden or backfills in case
of an earthquake

Settlement of a three storey building beside

the Dominican Road,Baguio City (July
1990 Earthquake)
Lateral Spreading

SANDBOIL
5. Mass Movements/ Landslides

The downward or outward movement of

earth materials could also occur during
earthquakes especially on unprotected
excavations or sloping grounds.
 Baguio City

Gabaldon, NE

1990 Earthquake
Landslides
HAZARDS IN
KARST
AREAS
 Sagada, Mt. Province
It all starts with the
rock Limestone

Limestones are
porous and prone to
dissolution by weakly
acidic groundwater
and rainfall.
How is Karst Formed?

1. Rain picks up CO2 as it falls.

2. The rain trickles into the

soil where it picks up more
CO2 and becomes a weak
solution of carbonic acid.

3. The carbonic acid

solution percolates through
the ground into joints &
fractures in the bedrock.

4. The bedrock gradually

dissolves, creating
underground streams, caves, LIMESTONE
sinkholes, etc.
 Limestone terrain with caves, sinkholes, and solution pipes.

Source: (Geoscience Australia)

Sinkhole
Callao Cave,
Penablanca,
Cagayan
Sumaguing cave, Sagada, Mountain Province
 CONES / MOGOTES

KARST TOWERS

KARST MOUNTAINS
What is a “Sinkhole”?
A sinkhole is an area of ground that has no natural
external surface drainage;

Sinkhole in La Salvacion, Carmen, Bohol

when it rains, all of
the water stays
inside the sinkhole
and typically drains
into the sub
surface.
 SINKHOLE IN FLORIDA – May 1981

Sinkholes are common in limestone areas.

HAZARDS IN KARST AREAS

• SINKHOLE FLOODING

• SINKHOLE COLLAPSE
Flooded
sinkholes
after a
heavy
rainfall

(Photo Credit: Center for Cave and Karst Studies/Western Kentucky University)
Example of pipe-out due to hydrostatic pressure and
clogged natural underground drainage system
causing local flooding at Crystal Cave
Sinkhole at Dominican Road,Baguio City
A flooded sinkhole
at Irisan, Baguio
City during
Typhoon Pepeng
(Oct. 2009)
Sinkhole Collapse
in The Dishman Lane Bowling Green, Kentucky
Subsidence due to Karst

natural development of sinkholes

and underground streams in
limestone areas is a major factor
in the subsidence of certain areas
of Baguio City
e.g. Crystal Cave, Dominican,
Irisan, Lourdes
Ground
subsidence
(collapse) due to
karstic
topography. A
natural
underground
drainage system
runs beneath this
area.
Collapsed Sinkhole, Crystal Cave Area, in front of Meneses’ Residence
Sagada, Mountain
Province
What are Sinkhole Warning Signs?
Wilting of small, circular areas of vegetation.
Moisture that normally supports the vegetation is
draining into the sinkhole that is developing below
the surface.
Small ponds of rainfall forming where water has not
collected before.
Cracks affecting a section of a wall of the day care center at
Barangay Dusita, Sierra Bullones, Bohol.
Sinkholes should not be used as waste dumps!
Do not use the
sinkhole as a
drainage
system!
(Pesticides and other wastes seep easily through the sinkhole
and into the aquifer - your drinking water).
 Volcano environments
• Most active volcanoes are located along, or near, the margins of the
continents.
• More than half encircle the Pacific Ocean.
• The area in red, below, is called the "Ring of Fire."
VOLCANIC-RELATED HAZARDS
 Volcanic hazards

∆ lava flow
∆ ashfall
∆ pyroclastic flow
∆ lahar flow
∆ volcanic gas

Mt. Pinatubo Eruption, 1991

LAVA FLOW
ASHFALL and LAHAR Bamban, Tarlac
September 1991

ASH FALL Clark Air Base

Ten years of Mt. Pinatubo Lahars
 PYROCLASTIC FLOW
Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991
VOLCANIC GASES
 Precursors of an impending volcanic eruption

• frequency of volcanic quakes

• steaming activity
• Crater glow
• Ground swells
• Localized landslides
• drying up of vegetation, springs/wells
• Increase in the temperature of hot springs
• variation in the chemical content of springs
• Drying up of springs/wells

www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph
 Pag alerto……

Malayo sa peligro…….

Acknowledgement:

Philippine Institute of Volcanology & Seismology (PHIVOLCS)

Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical & Astronomical Services Administration
(PAGASA)
END OF PRESENTATION….

MARAMING
SALAMAT
PO.