BT 354: DESIGN OF

REINFORCED CONCRETE
ELEMENTS
OBJECTIVES
 Understand the concept of reinforced concrete design
 Appreciate the methods employed in the design of reinforced concrete elements,
particularly the limit state design
 Be able to design a concrete section for moment, shear, deflection and crack
 Be able to apply the design of a concrete section to design the following elements
 Slabs
 Beams
 Columns
 Pad foundations
 Staircase
COURSE OUTLINE
 Reinforced Concrete Elements
 Concrete Materials

 Properties of Concrete

 Reinforcement

 Failure in concrete structures

 Limit State design

 Structural design and limit state

 Characteristic and design load

 Material properties and design strength

COURSE OUTLINE
 Sectional design of elements
 Design for moment
 Types of beam sections

 Behavior of beam sections in bending

 Singly reinforced rectangular beams

 Doubly reinforced rectangular beams

 Flanged beams

 Design for shear

 Design for bond

 Design for deflection

 Check for cracking

COURSE OUTLINE
 Design of slab

 Design of beam

 Design for staircase

 Design of column

 Design for foundation

1. REINFORCED CONCRETE
What is reinforced concrete?
 Reinforced concrete is a composite material made up of steel
bars and hardened concrete matrix
 The concrete matrix, with the help of the steel bars, resist the
compressive forces whiles the steel bars resists the tensile
stresses
 The concrete is in itself a composite material made up of a
mixture of:
 Cement
 Aggregates and water
 Water
CONCRETE MATERIALS - CEMENT
 This acts as the binder in the concrete matrix
 The commonest types of cement on the Ghanaian market are the Ordinary
Portland Cement and the Portland Limestone Cement
 The raw materials for cements are:
 Lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide
 The principal chemical compounds in cements are the aluminates and the
silicate in the form of
 Tricalcium silicate (C3S)
 Dicalcium silicate (C2S)
 Tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
 Tetracalcium aluminoferrite (C4AF)
CONCRETE MATERIALS - CEMENT
 When mixed with water, the cement turns into a paste and hydration begins
causing the stiffen with time and set.
 The setting time of the cement paste is controlled and regulated by the addition of
gypsum
 The British Standard (BS) defines two stages in the setting process of cement:
 Initial setting time - which must be a minimum of 45 minutes
 Final setting time - which takes place in about 10 hours
 Cement must be sound - that is, it must not contain excessive quantities of certain
substances such as lime, magnesia, calcium sulphate, etc. which make the cement
expand when hydrating or react with other substances in the aggregates and cause
it to disintegrate.
CONCRETE MATERIALS - AGGREGATES
 It forms the bulk of concrete and comes in the form of sand and gravels
 It is classified into:
 Coarse aggregates: gravel or crushed aggregates that are retained on the 5mm sieve
 Fine aggregates: gravel, sand or crushed aggregates that passes through the 5mm sieve
 Natural aggregates are classified according to the types, e.g. granite, basalt, flint,
etc.
 Materials used as aggregates should possess the following qualities:
 Inert
 Clean
 Hard
 Durable
CONCRETE MATERIALS - AGGREGATES
 To achieve dense strong concrete with the use of minimal cement, the cement
paste should fill all the voids within the fine aggregates, while the cement paste
and the fine aggregates fill the voids in the coarse aggregates
 The BS 882 (1983), now BS EN 12620 (2000), sets out the grading requirement for
the coarse and fine aggregates
 A well graded aggregate produces concrete with
 Good workability
 Increased strength
 Saves cement
 Prevent segregation
 Ensures good finish
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
 Is the most important property of concrete
 Is usually measured by the 28th day
 Standard cubes of 150mm or 100mm and cylinders of 150mm or 100mm
diameters for aggregate not exceeding 25mm in size are crushed to the strength
 Test procedures are given in:
 BS 1881 (1983) - Methods of testing concrete:
 Part 108: Methods of making test cubes from fresh concrete
 Part 111: Method of normal curing of test specimen
 Part 116: Method for determination of Compressive strength of concrete cube
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
TENSILE STRENGTH
 Is about one tenth of the compressive strength of concrete
 Is determined by loading concrete cylinder across its diameter as shown below
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
 The short-term stress-strain curve of concrete in compression is shown below
 Slope of the initial straight portion is the initial tangent modulus
 The slope at any point along the curve is the tangent modulus and the slope of the line from the
point to the origin is the secant modulus
 The secant modulus is dependent on the stress and the rate of application of the load
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
CREEP
 Is the gradual increase in the strain of concrete with time under prolong stress
 It can be much larger than the elastic strain in concrete upon loading
 There is an immediate elastic recovery and then a slow recovery in strain due to
creep after the specimen has been unloaded.
 Both amounts of creep recovery is much smaller than the original strain under
load
 The main factors that affect creep are the concrete mix and strength, type
aggregate, curing, ambient relative humidity and the magnitude and duration of
the loading
CONCRETE PROPERTIES
SHRINKAGE
 Is the contraction that occurs in concrete when it dries and hardens

 Drying shrinkage is irreversible but alternate drying and wetting causes alternate
contractions and expansions

 The aggregates size and content are the most important factors influencing
shrinkage
 REINFORCEMENT
 Is generally produced in two grades:
 Hot rolled mild steel bars of yield strength (𝑓𝑦 ) of 250𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
 Hot rolled / cold worked high yield steel bars with yield strength (𝑓𝑦 ) of 460𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

 Steel fabric is made from welded

cold draw steel wire to form a mesh,
it has a high yield strength of (𝑓𝑦 )
of 460𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

 A typical stress strain curve for

reinforcing bars is shown;
FAILURE IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES
Failures in concrete structures can be due to any of the following factors:
 In correct selection of materials
 Errors in design calculations
 Poor construction methods
 Incorrect placement of steel
 Inadequate cover to steel
 Incorrectly made construction joints
 Poor compaction
 Segregation
 Poor curing
 Too high a water content
FAILURE IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES
 Inadequate quality control and poor supervision
 Chemical attacks
 Chlorides attack
 Carbonation
 Sulphates attack
 Alkali-silica reaction
 Acids
 Physical and mechanical factors; including alterations made to structures
 Restraint against movement
 Abrasion
 Wetting and drying
 Freezing and thawing
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
 Refers to the “the integration of all aspect of design, material selection and
construction required to produce a durable structure”
 A durable structure is one that does not deteriorate unduly under the action of the
environment over its design life.
 The requirement for durability includes:
 The concrete element adequately protecting all embedded reinforcement from corrosion and
performing satisfactorily in its working environment throughout its working life.
 Main factors influencing durability includes the ingress of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and
other deleterious substances
 Low permeability is achieve by using adequate cement and a low water-to-cement ratio and
also by ensuring good compaction and curing
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
 Factors that affects durability includes:
 The cover to embedded steel

 The environment

 The type of cement

 The type of aggregates

 The cement content and water to cement ratio

 Workmanship
CONCRETE COVER
NOMINAL COVER
 Nominal cover should be provided to protect steel against fire
and corrosion

 Cover to main bars should not be less than the bar size or in
the case of pairs or bundles the size of single bar of the same
cross-sectional area

 Actual cover should note be less than nominal cover minus

5mm
CONCRETE COVER
NOMINAL COVER AGAINST CORROSION
The nominal cover for corrosion depends on the exposure condition
 Mild concrete protected against weather
 Moderate concrete sheltered from severe rain
concrete under water
concrete in non aggressive soils
 Severe concrete exposed to severe rain and alternating
wetting and drying
 Very severe concrete exposed to sea water, de-icing salt and
corrosive fumes
 Extreme concrete exposed to abrasive action
CONCRETE COVER
NOMINAL COVER AGAINST CORROSION
 The nominal cover for corrosion depends on the exposure condition
 Mild concrete protected against weather
 Moderate concrete sheltered from severe rain
concrete under water
concrete in non aggressive soils
 Severe concrete exposed to severe rain and alternating
wetting and drying
 Very severe concrete exposed to sea water, de-icing salt and
corrosive fumes
 Extreme concrete exposed to abrasive action
CONCRETE COVER
NOMINAL COVER AGAINST FIRE
 The nominal cover for corrosion depends on the exposure condition
 Mild concrete protected against weather
 Moderate concrete sheltered from severe rain
concrete under water
concrete in non aggressive soils
 Severe concrete exposed to severe rain and alternating
wetting and drying
 Very severe concrete exposed to sea water, de-icing salt and
corrosive fumes
 Extreme concrete exposed to abrasive action
MINIMUM DIMENSIONS
2. LIMIT STATE DESIGN
AIMS
 The aim of the limit state design is to achieve an acceptable probability
that the structure will perform satisfactorily during its life span.
 It must carry loads safely

 Not deform excessively

 Have adequate durability and resistance to effects of misuse and fire

 Design recommended in the design code (BS8110) is limit state and takes into
account theory, experiments and experience.

 It recognizes that design alone is not sufficient to produce a safe, serviceable and
durable structure. That correct selection of materials, quality control and
supervision of construction are equally important
CRITERIA FOR SAFE DESIGN
 The basic criterion for limit state design is that “the structure should
not become unfit for use; that is, it should not reach limit state during
its design life.”
 This is achieved by designing the structure to ensure that it does not
reach;
 Ultimate Limit State: the whole structure or its element should not collapse,
overturn or buckle when subjected to design load
 Serviceability limit State: the structure should not become unfit for use due to
excessive deflection, cracking or vibration
 In reinforced concrete design, the usual practice is to design for the ultimate
limit state and check for serviceability, taking all necessary precaution to
ensure durability.
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
STRENGTH
 The structure must be able to carry the most severe combination of
loads to which it might be subjected.
 Section must be capable of resisting axial loads, shear and moment
derived from analysis
 Design is made for ultimate loads and design strengths of materials
with partial safety factors applied to loads and material strengths
 Section strength is determined using plastic analysis based on short-
term design stress-strain curves for concrete and reinforcements
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
STABILITY
 The layout of the structure should be such that it will produce a stable
and robust structure.
 The designer should ensure that design and details of the parts and
component are compatible.
 Overall stability is provided by shear walls, lift shafts, staircases and
rigid frame action or a combination of these items.
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
ROBUSTNESS
 The planning and design of the structure should be such that damage
to a small area or failure of a single element should not lead to the
collapse of a major part of the structure
 That is to say that the structure should be resistant to progressive
collapse
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
DEFLECTION
 Deformation of the structure should not unduly affect the efficiency or
the appearance of the structure

 The actual deflection may be calculated, but in normal cases span-to-depth

ratios can be calculated to check compliance.
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE
CRACKING
 Cracking should be kept to reasonable limits by correct detailing

 Crack widths can be calculated, but for normal cases cracks can be
controlled by adhering to detailing rules as regards to bar spacing at
the tension zones
CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN LOADS
 These are the loads that the structure is designed to carry and are
considered as the maximum loads which will not be exceeded during
the life of the structure
 In statistical terms, it has a 95% probability of not being exceeded.
 The characteristic loads used in design are:
 Dead Load (𝐺𝑘 ): the self weight of the structure as well as the weight of the
finishes, services, ceilings, partitions, etc.
 Imposed Load (𝑄𝑘 ): caused by people, furniture, equipment, etc. on floor and
snow on roof.
 Wind Load (𝑊𝑘 ): caused by the action of wind on the structure
CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN LOADS
 Structure should be designed to resist all designed horizontal loads
 The design horizontal load is defined as:

𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠

= 𝐹𝑘 × 𝛾𝑓

 The partial safety factor takes account of

 Possible increases in load
 Inaccurate assessment of the effect of loads
 Unforeseen stress distribution in members
 The importance of limit state being considered
CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN LOADS
CHARACTERISTIC AND DESIGN LOADS
 The adverse partial safety condition is applied to load producing more
critical conditions; e.g. dead load plus wind load acting in the same
direction
 The beneficial partial safety factor is applied to loads producing less
critical conditions: e.g. dead load plus wind loads where the loads are
acting in opposite directions
 When considering the effect of exceptional load caused by misuse or
accidents 𝛾𝑓 can be taken as 1.05
MATERIAL PROPERTIES & DESIGN STRENGTH
 The characteristic strength or grade of material is defined as follows:
 For concrete, it is the 28 day cube strength in newtons per millimetre square

 For reinforcement, it is the yield or proof stress in newtons per millimetre square

 The minimum grade of reinforced concrete is given by the code as 30, 35,
40, 45, and 50 newtons per millimetre squared

 The characteristic strength of reinforcement is given by the BS code as:

 Hot rolled mild steel bars of yield strength (𝑓𝑦 ) of 250𝑁/𝑚𝑚2

 Hot rolled / cold worked high yield steel bars with yield strength (𝑓𝑦 ) of
460𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
MATERIAL PROPERTIES & DESIGN STRENGTH

 The resistance of a section to applied stress is based on the design

strength and is defined as:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑘
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = =
𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝛾𝑚

 The partial safety factor 𝛾𝑚 takes into account:

 Uncertainties in the strength of materials in the structure
 Uncertainties in the accuracy of the methods used to predict the behaviour
of members
 Variation in member size and dimension
MATERIAL PROPERTIES & DESIGN STRENGTH
3. SECTIONAL DESIGN OF ELEMENTS
DESIGN FOR MOMENTS
TYPES OF BEAMS
There are three type of reinforced concrete beams sections:
 Rectangular sections with tension reinforcement only
 Rectangular sections with tension and compression reinforcement
 Flanged section of either T or L shape with tension reinforcement and with or without
compression reinforcement
BEHAVIOUR OF BEAMS IN BENDING
 Concrete is very strong in compression but weak and unreliable in
tension
 Reinforcement is therefore required at the tension zones to take care
of the tensile stresses
 A beam which is transversely loaded usually develop tension cracks at
the tension zone due to moments
BEHAVIOUR OF BEAMS IN BENDING
BEHAVIOUR OF BEAMS IN BENDING
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS
Assumptions:
 Strain in concrete and reinforcement are derived assuming plane section remain
plane
 Stress in concrete in compression is derived using either
 The stress-strain curve with 𝛾𝑚 =1.5 or
 The simplified stress block where the depth of the stress block is 0.9 of the depth to
the neutral axis
 The tensile strength in concrete is ignored
 The stress in reinforcement is derived using the stress-strain curve with 𝛾𝑚 =1.15
 Where the section is designed to resist flexure only, the lever arm should not be
assumed to be greater than 0.95 of the effective depth
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
 SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
 The stress in concrete is
0.67𝑓𝑐𝑢 0.67𝑓𝑐𝑢
= = 0.447𝑓𝑐𝑢
𝛾𝑚 1.5

 The strain in the concrete, from the stress-strain curve is 0.0035

 The stress in steel for high yield bars is
𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑦
= = 0.87𝑓𝑦
𝛾𝑚 1.15

 From the stress diagram, the internal forces are:

𝐶 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐶 = 0.447𝑓𝑐𝑢 × 𝑏 × 0.9 × 0.5𝑑
𝐶 = 0.201𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑
 SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
𝑇 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇 = 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠

For the internal forces to be in equilibrium

𝐶=𝑇

𝑧 = 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚
𝑧 = 𝑑 − 0.5 × 0.9 × 0.5𝑑
𝑧 = 0.775𝑑
SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
𝑀𝑅𝐶 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒
=𝐶×𝑧
= 0.201𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 × 0.775𝑑
= 0.156𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2
= 𝐾𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2

𝑀𝑅𝑆 = 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

=𝑇×𝑧
= 0.87𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠 × 0.775𝑑
= 0.674𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠 𝑑
 SINGLY REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAM
 Making the 𝐴𝑠 in the equation the subject will yield us the area of
reinforcement required for the section

𝑀𝑅𝑆
𝐴𝑠 =
0.674𝑓𝑦 𝑑
 TYPE OF FAILURE AND BEAM SECTION CLASSIFICATION
With reference to the stress-strain diagram for concrete and steel, three failure
situation can occur in a beam section depending on the amount of
reinforcement provided.
CASE 1
 The concrete fails at the same time as the steel yields at ultimate load.
 At the point of failure, the strain in concrete is 0.0035 and that of steel is 0.002
 From the strain diagram
𝑥 𝑑−𝑥
= or 𝑥 = 0.64𝑑
0.0035 0.002
The amount of steel that results in this
situation can be obtained by equating
the internal forces C and T in the concrete.
This is the theoretical balanced design case
 TYPE OF FAILURE AND BEAM SECTION CLASSIFICATION
CASE 2
 Where the amount of steel provided is less than what was provided in the
first instance
 The steel reaches yield point and continues to yield before the concrete fails
at the ultimate load
 Cracks appear at the tension zone of the
as a warning of failure.
 This situation is termed as under-reinforced
beam
 TYPE OF FAILURE AND BEAM SECTION CLASSIFICATION
CASE 3
 Where the amount of steel provided is more than what was provided in the
first instance
 The concrete fails suddenly without warning before the steel reaches yield
 This situation is termed as an over-reinforced
beam
UNDER REINFORCED BEAM
𝐶 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
= 0.477𝑓𝑐𝑢 × 𝑏 × 0.9𝑥
= 0.402𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑥

z = 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑟𝑚
= 𝑑 − 0.45𝑥

𝑀 = 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
=𝐶×𝑧
= 0.402𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑥 × (𝑑 − 0.45𝑥)
= 0.402𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑𝑥 − 0.181𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑥 2
2 5.488𝑀
𝑥 − 2.221𝑏𝑑𝑥 + =0
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏
 UNDER REINFORCED BEAM
Solving the quadratic equation yields
1ൗ
5.488𝑀 2
2
𝑥 = 1.11𝑑 + 1.233𝑑 −
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏
𝑧 = 𝑑 − 0.45𝑥
1Τ
𝐾 2
𝑧 = 𝑑 0.5 + 0.25 −
0.9

Where
𝑀
𝐾=
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑2
This is the expression given in the code, and the lever arm z is not to exceed 0.95d
𝑀
The area of steel 𝐴𝑠 =
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧