WEIGHT AND BALANCE

Prepared by: Engr. Jerone Kristan E. Josol

 OBJECTIVES
•Know the effect of aircraft weight and balance in the
performance of airplanes

• To familiarize regulations governing the frequency of

aircraft weighing

• To familiarize the different airplane weight and balance

terms

• Know the different methods on how to compute the airplane

weight and balance
 WEIGHT
• Standard empty weight — consists of the airframe, engines, and all items of operating equipment that
have fixed locations and are permanently installed in the airplane; including fixed ballast,
hydraulic fluid, unusable fuel, and full engine oil.

• Basic empty weight — includes the standard empty weight plus optional and special equipment that
has been installed.

• Licensed empty weight — similar to basic empty weight except that it does not include full engine oil

• Unusable fuel / Residual fuel - small amount of fuel in the tanks that cannot be safely used in flight or
drained on the ground

• Usable fuel – fuel available during flight

• Useful load (general aviation aircraft) — is the weight of the pilot, copilot, passengers, baggage,
usable fuel, and drainable oil. It is the basic empty weight subtracted from the maximum
allowable gross weight. This term applies to general aviation aircraft only.

• Operating Weight (transport aircraft) - weight of the crew and their baggage ready for flight

• Payload — is the weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage.

• Maximum ramp weight — is the total weight of a loaded aircraft, and includes all fuel. It is greater than
the takeoff weight due to the fuel that will be burned during the taxi and run up operations. Ramp
weight may also be referred to as taxi weight.

• Maximum takeoff weight — is the maximum allowable weight for takeoff.

• Maximum landing weight — is the greatest weight that an airplane normally is allowed to have at landing.

• Maximum weight — is the maximum authorized weight of the aircraft and all of its equipment as specified
in the Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) for the aircraft.

• Maximum zero fuel weight — is the maximum weight, exclusive of usable fuel.

• Standard weights — have been established for numerous items involved in weight and balance
computations. These weights should not be used if actual weights are available. Some of the
standard weights are:

Gasoline (Av-Gas) ------------- 6 lb/US gal

Jet A-1 --------------------------- 6.7 lb/US gal
Oil --------------------------------- 7.5 lb/US gal
Water ----------------------------- 8.35 lb/US gal
Male (pilot/pax) ----------------- 170 lb
Female (cabin attendant) ---- 130 lb
Female (pax) -------------------- 170 lb
Child ------------------------------- 55 lb
Infant ------------------------------ 22 lb

• Tare — refers to the weight of chocks, blocks, stands, etc. which is used in weighing the aircraft which is
included in the scale reading. However, this must be subtracted from the weight obtained when
performing computations.
 Transport Aircraft

Empty weight General Aviation Aircraft

+ Operating Weight
= Basic operating weight Empty weight
+ Payload + Useful Load
= Zero Fuel Weight = Takeoff weight
+ Fuel Load - Fuel burned enroute
= Ramp / Taxi Weight = Landing weight
- Fuel burned during taxi
= Takeoff weight
- Fuel burned enroute
= Landing weight
 EFFECTS OF WEIGHT
Excessive weight reduces the flight performance of an airplane in almost
every aspect. The most important performance deficiencies of the
overloaded airplane are:

• Higher takeoff speed.

• Longer takeoff run.
• Reduced rate and angle of climb.
• Lower maximum altitude.
• Shorter range.
• Reduced cruising speed.
• Reduced maneuverability.
• Higher stalling speed.
• Higher approach and landing speed.
• Longer landing roll.
• Excessive weight on the nosewheel or tailwheel.
 REGULATIONS
• A.O. 91 - Administrative Order No. 91 series of 2002
GENERAL FLIGHT AND OPERATING RULES

• A.O. 135 - Administrative Order No. 135 series of 2001

CERTIFICATION AND OPERATION OF AIR TAXI AND AERIAL WOK COMMERCIAL
OPERATOR

• A.O.121 - Administrative Order No. 121 Series of 2002

CERTIFICATION AND OPERATION OF SCHEDULED AND NON-SCHEDULED
INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC AIR CARRIER

• A.O. 4-A - Administrative Order No. 4-A series of 1970

MAINTENANCE, REPAIR, ALTERATION OF AIRFRAMES, POWERPLANTS,
PROPELLERS AND APPLIANCES

• A.O. 135.185 – Empty weight and center of gravity: Currency requirement

No person may operate a multi-engine aircraft unless the current empty weight and center of
gravity are calculated from values established by actual weighing of the preceding 36
calendar months.

• A.O. 121.153 (b) – Currency requirement of Empty Weight and Center of Gravity:
No certificate holder may operate a multi-engine aircraft unless the current empty weight and
center of gravity are calculated from values established by actual weighing of the preceding
36 calendar months.
 • ATO SAFETY CIRCULAR NO. 01-04 – Currency requirement of Aircraft Empty Weight and
Center of Gravity:
All A.O. 91 operators, including flying schools and others engaged in special operations
should reweigh their aircraft that has been use for at least five (5) years at their next annual
Inspection and every three (3) years thereafter or after undergoing major
alteration/modification or repair.

• A.O. 4-A Chapter II Section I, 2.II (b) – Major Alterations or Modifications

Changes in the equipment where the cumulative weight of all such alterations since the
aircraft was reweighed or the weight and balance data recomputed exceed two percent of the
certificated empty weight of aircraft under 12,500 pounds gross weight or ½ of one percent of
the certificated maximum landing weight on aircraft over 12,500 pounds gross weight and/or
the empty weight center of the gravity location exceeds ½ of 1% of M.A.C.

AIRCRAFT-08 – Weight and Balance of Aircraft

8.3.2 - All RP registered aircraft used for commercial operations shall be reweighed every
three years, every five (5) years for aircraft used for general aviation, or at such
times as Director General of Civil Aviation may require.
 THE WEIGHING EQUIPMENT
1. Electronic digital weighing
• 50 K load cell
2. Three (3) hydraulic jack
3. For leveling the aircraft
• Inclinometer / spirit level
• Plumb bob
4. Arm measurement
• tape rule
• marker / chalk

WEIGHING PROCEDURES
1. The aircraft should be placed in a closed hangar to avoid vibrations or lift forces which would
otherwise be caused by air flowing over the lifting surfaces.
2. The aircraft should be dry and cleaned inside and out.
3. The aircraft equipment should be checked against the equipment list section of the weight and
balance record.
4. Fuel tanks should be drained in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
5. Unless otherwise noted in the aircraft specification, the oil system should be completely drained
through the normal drain ports.
6. Reservoirs or tanks containing hydraulic fluid, anti-icing fluid and other liquids which are considered
part of the empty weight should be filled to capacity.
7. Weigh the aircraft in a level position.
Excerpts from a Type Certificate Data Sheet
 BALANCE, STABILITY, AND
CENTER OF GRAVITY
Balance refers to the location of the center of gravity
(c.g.) of an airplane, and is important to airplane
stability and safety in flight.

The prime concern of airplane balancing is the fore

and aft location of the c.g. along the longitudinal axis.
The center of gravity is not necessarily a fixed point; its
location depends on the distribution of weight in the
airplane. As variable load items are shifted or
expended, there is a resultant shift in c.g. location. The
pilot should realize that if the c.g. of an airplane is
displaced too far forward on the longitudinal axis, a
nose-heavy condition will result. Conversely, if the c.g.
is displaced too far aft on the longitudinal axis, a tail-
heavy condition will result. It is possible that an
unfavorable location of the c.g. could produce such an
unstable condition that the pilot could not control the Lateral or longitudinal unbalance.
airplane.
 EFFECTS OF ADVERSE BALANCE
An airplane is designed to have stability that allows it to be trimmed so it will maintain
straight and level flight with hands off of the controls. Longitudinal stability is
maintained by ensuring the c.g. is slightly ahead of the center of lift. This produces a
fixed nose-down force independent of the airspeed. This is balanced by a variable
nose-up force, which is produced by a downward aerodynamic force on the horizontal
tail surfaces that varies directly with airspeed.
.

Longitudinal forces acting on an airplane in flight.

If a rising air current should cause the nose to pitch up, the airplane will slow down and the
downward force on the tail will decrease. The weight concentrated at the c.g. will pull the nose
back down. If the nose should drop in flight, the airspeed will increase and the increased
downward tail load will bring the nose back up to level flight.

As long as the c.g. is maintained within the allowable limits for its weight, the airplane will have
adequate longitudinal stability and control.
If the c.g. is too far aft, it will be too near the center of lift and the airplane will
be unstable, and difficult to recover from a stall. If the unstable airplane should
ever enter a spin, the spin could become flat and recovery would be difficult or
impossible.

If the c.g. is too far aft, at the low stall airspeed there might not be enough
elevator nose-down force to get the nose down for recovery.
If the c.g. is too far forward, the downward tail load will have to be increased to maintain level
flight. This increased tail load has the same effect as carrying additional weight — the aircraft will
have to fly at a higher angle of attack, and drag will increase.

A more serious problem caused by the c.g. being too far forward is the lack of sufficient elevator
authority. At slow takeoff speeds, the elevator might not produce enough nose-up force to rotate
and on landing there may not be enough elevator force to flare the airplane. Both takeoff and
landing runs will be lengthened if the c.g. is too far forward.

If the c.g. is too far forward, there will not be enough elevator nose-up force to flare the airplane for
landing.
 BALANCE
• Center of gravity (c.g.) — is the point about which an airplane would balance if it were possible to
suspend it at that point. It is the mass center of the airplane, or the theoretical point at which
the entire weight of the airplane is assumed to be concentrated. It may be expressed in
inches from the reference datum, or in percent of mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).

• Center of gravity limits — are the specified forward and aft points within which the c.g. must be
located during flight. These limits are indicated on pertinent airplane specifications.

• Center of gravity range — is the distance between the forward and aft c.g. limits indicated on pertinent
airplane specifications.
• Datum (reference datum) — is an imaginary vertical
plane or line from which all measurements of
arm are taken. The datum is established by the
manufacturer. Once the datum has been
selected, all moment arms and the location of
c.g. range are measured from this point.

• Arm (moment arm) — is the horizontal distance in

inches from the reference datum line to the
center of gravity of an item. The algebraic sign
is plus (+) if measured aft of the datum, and
minus (–) if measured forward of the datum.

• Station — is a location in the airplane that is identified by

a number designating its distance in inches
from the datum. The datum is, therefore,
identified as station zero. An item located at
station +50 would have an arm of 50 inches.
• Moment — is the product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm. Moments are expressed in
pound-inches (lb-in). Total moment is the weight of the airplane multiplied by the distance
between the datum and the c.g.

• Moment index (or index) — is a moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000. The
purpose of using a moment index is to simplify weight and balance computations of airplanes
where heavy items and long arms result in large, unmanageable numbers.

• Reduction factor — is a constant which when divided into a moment results in an index. Reduction
factors of 100, 1,000 or 10,000 are used to simplify weight and balance calculation process.

• Mean aerodynamic chord — is the average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of the
wing.

• LEMAC — is the leading edge of the main aerodynamic chord.

• TEMAC — is the trailing edge of the main aerodynamic chord.

DETERMINING LOADED WEIGHT
AND CENTER OF GRAVITY
 THREE METHODS TO
DETERMINE LOADED WEIGHT
AND CENTER OF GRAVITY

• COMPUTATION METHOD
• GRAPH METHOD
• TABLE METHOD
COMPUTATION METHOD
COMPUTATION METHOD

The computation method involves the application of basic math functions. The following is
an example of the computation method.
Given:
Maximum Gross Weight ----------------- 3400 lb
Center-of-Gravity Range ---------------- 78-86 in
Front Seat Occupants ------------------- 340 lb
Rear Seat Occupants -------------------- 350 lb
Fuel ------------------------------------------- 75 gal
Baggage Area 1 --------------------------- 80 lb

To determine the loaded weight and CG, follow these steps.

Step 1 — List the weight of the airplane, occupants, fuel, and baggage.
Remember that fuel weighs 6 pounds per gallon.

Step 2 — Enter the moment for each item listed. Remember “weight x arm =
moment.”

Step 3 — Total the weight and moments.

Step 4 — To determine the CG, divide the total moment by the total weight.

NOTE: The weight and balance records for a particular airplane will provide the empty weight and moment as well as the information on the arm
distance.
 TOTAL MOMENTS
c.g. =
TOTAL WEIGHT

The total loaded weight of 3,320 pounds does not exceed the maximum gross weight of 3,400 pounds
and the CG of 84.8 is within the 78-86 inch range; therefore, the airplane is loaded within limits.
GRAPH METHOD
GRAPH METHOD

Another method for determining the loaded weight and CG is the use of graphs provided by
the manufacturers. To simplify calculations, the moment may sometimes be divided by 100,
1,000, or 10,000. The following is an example of the graph method.
Given:
Front Seat Occupants ---------- 340 lb
Rear Seat Occupants ----------- 300 lb
Fuel --------------------------------- 40 gal
Baggage Area 1 ----------------- 20 lb

The same steps should be followed as in the computation method except the graphs
provided will calculate the moments and allow the pilot to determine if the airplane is loaded
within limits. To determine the moment using the loading graph, find the weight and draw a
line straight across until it intercepts the item for which the moment is to be calculated. Then
draw a line straight down to determine the moment. (The red line on the loading graph
represents the moment for the pilot and front passenger. All other moments were
determined in the same way.) Once this has been done for each item, total the weight and
moments and draw a line for both weight and moment on the center-of-gravity envelope
graph. If the lines intersect within the envelope, the airplane is loaded within limits. In this
sample loading problem, the airplane is loaded within limits.
TABLE METHOD
TABLE METHOD

The table method

applies the same
principles as the
computational and graph
methods. The
information and
limitations are contained
in tables provided by the
manufacturer. On the left
is an example of a table
and a weight and
balance calculation
based on that table. In
this problem, the total
weight of 2,799 pounds
and moment of 2,278 /
100 are within the limits
of the table.
COMPUTATIONS WITH A NEGATIVE ARM

A sample of weight and balance computation using an airplane with a negative arm. It is important to
remember that a positive times a negative equals a negative, and a negative would be subtracted from the
total moments.
SHIFTING, ADDING AND
REMOVING WEIGHT
A pilot must be able to accurately and rapidly solve any problems
that involve the shift, addition, or removal of weight. For example,
the pilot may load the aircraft within the allowable takeoff weight
limit, then find a CG limit has been exceeded. The most satisfactory
solution to this problem is to shift baggage, passengers, or both. The
pilot should be able to determine the minimum load shift needed to
make the aircraft safe for flight. Pilots should be able to determine if
shifting a load to a new location will correct an out-of-limit condition.
There are some standardized calculations that can help make these
determinations.
WEIGHT SHIFTING

When weight is shifted from one location to another, the total weight of the aircraft is unchanged. The total
moments, however, do change in relation and proportion to the direction and distance the weight is moved.
When weight is moved forward, the total moments decrease; when weight is moved aft, total moments
increase. The moment change is proportional to the amount of weight moved. Since many aircraft have
forward and aft baggage compartments, weight may be shifted from one to the other to change the CG.

Example 1. You have calculated the total weight to be 4,000 pounds with the C.G. located at 100 inches
aft of datum. What is the new C.G. position if you shift 50 pounds of baggage from the rear
baggage area at station 200 to the forward baggage at station 50?

Arm Moment
WEIGHT (lb)
(in) (lb-in)
Original Totals 4,000 100 400,000
Rear Baggage Out -50 200 -10,000
Forward Baggage in +50 50 +2,500

New Totals 4,000 392,500

C.G. = Total Moments / Total Weight

= 392,500 lb-in / 4,000 lb
C.G. = 98.13 inches aft
Example 2. You have calculated the total weight to be 4,000 pounds with the C.G. located at 100 inches
aft of datum. You wish to move C.G. to 98 inches aft of datum, by shifting some baggage from
the rear baggage area at station 200 to the forward baggage area at station 50. How much
should you shift (to the nearest pound)?

Arm
WEIGHT (lb) Moment (lb-in)
(in)
Original Totals 4,000 100 400,000
Rear Baggage Out -w 200 -200 w

Forward Baggage in +w 50 +50 w

New Totals 4,000 400,000 – 150 w

C.G. = Total Moment / Total Weight

400,000 lb-in – 150in w

New c.g. 98 in =
4,000 lb

(4,000 lb) (98 in) = 400,000 lb-in - 150in w

150 in w = 400,000 lb-in – (4,000) (98 in)

400,000 lb-in – 392,000 lb-in 8,000 lb-in

w = =
150 in 150 in

w = 53.50 lb
WEIGHT-CHANGE CALCULATIONS

In many instances, the weight and balance of the aircraft will be changed by the addition or removal of weight.
When this happens, a new CG must be calculated and checked against the limitations to see if the location is
acceptable. This type of weight and balance problem is commonly encountered when the aircraft burns fuel in
flight, thereby reducing the weight located at the fuel tanks. Most small aircraft are designed with the fuel tanks
positioned close to the CG; therefore, the consumption of fuel does not affect the CG to any great extent.
The addition or removal of cargo presents a CG change problem that must be calculated before flight. The
problem may always be solved by calculations involving total moments. A typical problem may involve the
calculation of a new CG for an aircraft which, when loaded and ready for flight, receives some additional cargo
or passengers just before departure time.
Example 1. Your airplane total weight is 4,100 lb with the cg located at 100 inches aft of datum. Maximum
permissible weight is 4,000 lb, so you decide to remove 100 lb of baggage from the baggage
compartment at station 200. What is the new cg position?

Arm Moment
WEIGHT (lb)
(in) (lb-in)
Original Totals 4,100 100 410,000
Baggage Change -100 200 -20,000

New Totals 4,000 390,000

C.G. = Total Moments / Total Weight

= 390,000 lb-in / 4,000 lb
C.G. = 97.50 inches aft
Example 2. You have calculated the total weight to be 2,400 pounds with the C.G. located at 73.5 inches
which is 1.5 inches outside the aft limit of 72 inches. Maximum permissible weight is 2,400 lb and the
airplane is fully loaded, with no possibility of shifting the load. What is the minimum baggage (to the next
pound) you must remove from station 150 to bring the CG within limits for takeoff?

Arm
WEIGHT (lb) Moment (lb-in)
(in)
Original Totals 2,400 73.5 176,400
Baggage Change -w 150 -150 w

New Totals 2,400 – w 176,400 – 150 w

New C.G. position = Total Moment / Total Weight

176,400 lb-in – 150in w

72 in =
2,400 lb – w

(2,400 lb- w) (72 in) = 176,400 lb-in - 150in w

172,800lb - 72in w = 176,400 lb-in - 150in w
150in w – 72in w = 176,400 lb-in – 172,800 lb-in
78 in w = 3,600 lb-in
3,600 lb-in
w =
78 in

w = 46.20 lb
 PERCENT OF MEAN AERODYNAMIC
CHORD
Expression of the C.G. relative to the MAC is a common practice. The c.g. position is expressed as a %
MAC (percent of the mean aerodynamic chord) and the c.g. limits are expressed in the same manner.

Example 1

Given : MAC – Sta. 100 (LEMAC) to Sta. 250

c.g. – Sta. 130
Reqd: c.g. in % MAC
Solution:
distance of c.g. from LEMAC
% MAC = x 100
MAC

distance of c.g. from LEMAC = c.g. - LEMAC

= 130 – 100
= 30 in
MAC = 250 – 100
= 150 in

30 in
% MAC = x 100 = 20 % MAC
150 in
Example 2

Given : MAC – 180 in

c.g. – Sta. 410.2
LEMAC = Sta. 390
Reqd: c.g. in % MAC
Solution:
distance of c.g. from LEMAC
% MAC = x 100
MAC

distance of c.g. from LEMAC = c.g. - LEMAC

= 410.2 - 390
= 20.20 in

20.20 in
% MAC = x 100 = 11.20 % MAC
180 in
Example 3

Given : MAC – 170 in

c.g. – 27.5 % MAC
LEMAC = Sta. 500
Reqd: c.g. in inches from datum
Solution:

c.g. (in inches) = LEMAC + distance of c.g. from LEMAC

distance of c.g. from LEMAC

% MAC = x 100
MAC

% MAC distance of c.g. from LEMAC

=
100 MAC

% MAC
distance of c.g. from LEMAC = x MAC
100

27.5 %
= x MAC
100
= 46.75 in
c.g. (in inches) = 500 in + 46.75 in
c.g. (in inches) = 546.75 in aft of datum
WEIGHT AND BALANCE